# itemDataValues

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  The lack of consumer confidence in information privacy has been identified as a major problem hampering the growth of e-commerce. Despite the importance of understanding the nature of online consumers' concerns for information privacy, this topic has received little attention in the information systems community. To fill the gap in the literature, this article focuses on three distinct, yet closely related, issues. First, drawing on social contract theory, we offer a theoretical framework on the dimensionality of Internet users' information privacy concerns (IUIPC). Second, we attempt to operationalize the multidimensional notion of IUIPC using a second-order construct, and we develop a scale for it. Third, we propose and test a causal model on the relationship between IUIPC and behavioral intention toward releasing personal information at the request of a marketer. We conducted two separate field surveys and collected data from 742 household respondents in one-on-one, face-to-face interviews. The results of this study indicate that the second-order IUIPC factor, which consists of three first-order dimensions—namely, collection, control, and awareness—exhibited desirable psychometric properties in the context of online privacy. In addition, we found that the causal model centering on IUIPC fits the data satisfactorily and explains a large amount of variance in behavioral intention, suggesting that the proposed model will serve as a useful tool for analyzing online consumers' reactions to various privacy threats on the Internet.


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  This paper captures the current state of privacy scholarship in marketing and related disciplines. We examine theoretical perspectives and empirical findings about data and information privacy grouped according to privacy’s role in society, the psychology of privacy, and the economics of privacy. Although a coherent subset of research themes provide deep understanding, theoretical and empirical findings show this narrow focus also has constrained our view of privacy to consumer, organizational, ethical, or legal silos. In response, we take a necessary step toward expanding the privacy domain across these borders, emphasizing the compelling synergies that span multiple interests. We conclude by highlighting future research themes that embody a multidimensional approach, which blends the many interconnected concerns that feature in contemporary privacy questions in marketing. Since internal and external stakeholders are affected in multiple and potentially unforeseen ways by data privacy issues, additional work in this space remains critical and needed.


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  This research addresses the tensions that arise between the collection and use of personal information that people provide in the course of most consumer transactions, and privacy. In today’s electronic world, the competitive strategies of successful ﬁrms increasingly depend on vast amounts of customer data. Ironically, the same information practices that provide value to organizations also raise privacy concerns for individuals. This study hypothesized that organizations can address these privacy concerns and gain business advantage through customer retention by observing procedural fairness: customers will be willing to disclose personal information and have that information subsequently used to create consumer proﬁles for business use when there are fair procedures in place to protect individual privacy. Because customer relationships are characterized by social distance, customers must depend on strangers to act on their behalf. Procedural fairness serves as an intermediary to build trust when interchangeable organizational agents exercise considerable delegated power on behalf of customers who cannot specify or constrain their behavior. Our hypothesis was supported as we found that when customers are explicitly told that fair information practices are employed, privacy concerns do not distinguish consumers who are willing to be proﬁled from those who are unwilling to have their personal information used in this way.


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  This article summarizes and draws connections among diverse streams of theoretical and empirical research on the economics of privacy. We focus on the economic value and consequences of protecting and disclosing personal information, and on consumers' understanding and decisions regarding the trade-offs associated with the privacy and the sharing of personal data. We highlight how the economic analysis of privacy evolved over time, as advancements in information technology raised increasingly nuanced and complex issues. We find and highlight three themes that connect diverse insights from the literature. First, characterizing a single unifying economic theory of privacy is hard, because privacy issues of economic relevance arise in widely diverse contexts. Second, there are theoretical and empirical situations where the protection of privacy can both enhance and detract from individual and societal welfare. Third, in digital economies, consumers' ability to make informed decisions about their privacy is severely hindered because consumers are often in a position of imperfect or asymmetric information regarding when their data is collected, for what purposes, and with what consequences. We conclude the article by highlighting some of the ongoing issues in the privacy debate of interest to economists. (JEL D82, D83, G20, I10, L13, M31, M37)


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  This article seeks to broaden our understanding of online privacy in three ways: rst, by drawing out the differences between the physical world and the digital world as those differences affect privacy; second, by exploring how the concept of the ‘commons’ might help us to understand social and economic relationships in cyberspace; and third, by analysing two contrasting views of privacy: privacy as a private or individual good and privacy as a common good. In order to analyse similaritiesand differences in privacy in the physical world and the online world, each is assessed in three ways: the obvious level of privacy available; the possibility of modifying that level of privacy to create or choose more or less privacy for oneself; and the degree to which the, prior or contemporaneous, privacy decisions of others affect the amount of privacy that is available to all. Applying an analysis based on the ‘tragedy of the commons’, the article concludes that at least part of cyberspace can be conceived as a ‘commons’ and that personal information ows could be considered a ‘common pool resource’ within that commons. Based on the likely calculations that individuals and organizations will make about collection and uses of personal information, the article next evaluates what would be the most effective policy approach to ensure that the common pool resource of personal information is not overused and degraded. The article concludes that a policy approach of providing individuals with a private means, either through property rights or some means of redressing their grievances, is unlikely to provide an effective means of protecting the common pool resource of personal information. A policy approach that acknowledges the common good basis of privacy and views personal information as a common pool resource provides an alternative view of the policy problems and offers suggestions in terms of rules and institutions that may be effective in addressing those problems.


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  Marketing communications media technologies have the potential to be intrusive and inﬂuence consumers’ perceptions of marketing communication. Aggressive direct marketing (DM) is one communication tool that has the potential to lead to consumer concern about information privacy. Concerned consumers change their behavior: They refuse to buy through risky channels or provide information, thus jeopardizing the aim of DM. Responsible DM can prevent such reactions and build trust. Typical measures taken and recommended to protect consumers from privacy violations are of a regulative rather than a market-oriented nature, which is directly opposed to companies’ proﬁt-maximization aims. We propose a segmentation-based approach for responsible DM, based on consumer heterogeneity regarding privacy concerns and privacy-related behavior. Using two independent samples from South Africa and Australia, we explore consumers’ views on privacy issues and examine the potential of a market-oriented approach to responsible DM.


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  To enable futurestudies in the informationprivacy research stream, we developed and validated an instrumentthat identifies and measures the primarydimensions of individuals' concers about organizationalinformationprivacy practices. The development process included examinations of privacy literature; experience surveys and focus groups;and the use of expertjudges. The result was a parsimonious 15-item instrument with four subscales tappinginto dimensions of individuals' concerns about organizationalinformationprivacy practices. The instrumentwas rigorously tested and validatedacross several heterogenous populations,providinga high degree of confidence in the scales' validity, reliability, and generalizability.


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  This U.S.-based research attempts to understand the relationships between users’ perceptions about Internet privacy concerns, the need for government surveillance, government intrusion concerns, and the willingness to disclose personal information required to complete online transactions. We test a theoretical model based on a privacy calculus framework and Asymmetric Information Theory using data collected from 422 respondents. Using LISREL, we found that privacy concerns have an important inﬂuence on the willingness to disclose personal information required to transact online. The perceived need for government surveillance was negatively related to privacy concerns and positively related to willingness to disclose personal information. On the other hand, concerns about government intrusion were positively related to privacy concerns. The theoretical framework of our study can be applied across other countries.


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  This study focuses on antecedents to Internet privacy concerns and the behavioral intention to conduct on-line transactions. Perceptions of privacy are socially constructed through communication and transactions with social entities over a networked environment, a process that involves a certain level of technical skill and literacy. The research model specifies that social awareness and Internet literacy are related to both Internet privacy and intention to transact. Survey data collected from 422 respondents were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) with LISREL and provided support for the hypothesized relationships. Social awareness was positively related and Internet literacy was negatively related to Internet privacy concerns. Moreover, Internet privacy concerns were negatively related and Internet literacy positively related to intention to transact on-line. This research explores the two alternative antecedents to Internet privacy concerns and intention to engage in e-commerce activity and contributes to our understanding of Internet privacy and its importance in the global information environment. The construct of social awareness can be broadened to develop a much-needed construct of awareness in MIS research related to the voluntary usage of information technology. A segmentation of Internet users with respect to privacy concerns is also proposed.


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  This research focuses on the development and validation of an instrument to measure the privacy concerns of individuals who use the Internet and two antecedents, perceived vulnerability and perceived ability to control information. The results of exploratory factor analysis support the validity of the measures developed. In addition, the regression analysis results of a model including the three constructs provide strong support for the relationship between perceived vulnerability and privacy concerns, but only moderate support for the relationship between perceived ability to control information and privacy concerns. The latter unexpected results suggest that the relationship among the hypothesized antecedents and privacy concerns may be one that is more complex than is captured in the hypothesized model, in light of the strong theoretical justiﬁcation for the role of information control in the extant literature on information privacy.


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  Consumer privacy is a public policy issue that has received substantial attention over the last thirty years. The phenomenal growth of the Internet has spawned several new concerns about protecting the privacy of consumers. The authors examine both historical and conceptual analyses of privacy and discuss domestic and international regulatory and self-regulatory approaches to confronting privacy issues on the Internet. The authors also review ethical theories that apply to consumer privacy and offer specific suggestions for corporate ethical policy and public policy as well as a research agenda.


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  Location-based services (LBS) use positioning technologies to provide individual users with reachability and accessibility that would otherwise not be available in the conventional commercial realm. While LBS confer greater connectivity and personalization on consumers, they also threaten users’ information privacy through granular tracking of their preferences, behaviors, and identity. To address privacy concerns in the LBS context, this study extends the privacy calculus model to explore the role of information delivery mechanisms (pull and push) in the efficacy of three privacy intervention approaches (compensation, industry self-regulation, and government regulation) in influencing individual privacy decision making. The research model was tested using data gathered from 528 respondents through a quasi-experimental survey method. Structural equations modeling using partial least squares validated the instrument and the proposed model. Results suggest that the effects of the three privacy intervention approaches on an individual’s privacy calculus vary based on the type of information delivery mechanism (pull and push). Results suggest that providing financial compensation for push-based LBS is more important than it is for pull-based LBS. Moreover, this study shows that privacy advocates and government legislators should not treat all types of LBS as undifferentiated but could instead specifically target certain types of services.


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  The privacy paradox introcution News Media and the law THE REPORTERS COMMITTEE FOR FREEDOM OF THE PRESS Bedrick, B., Lerner, B., Whitehead, B. 1998.pdf


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  The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, "News Media and the Law", Washington, DC, Volume 22, Issue 2, Spring 1998, pp. P1–P3.


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  The Personalization Privacy Paradox: An Empirical Evaluation of Information Transparency and the Willingness to Be Profiled Online for Personalization


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  Research Commentary—Informing Privacy Research Through Information Systems, Psychology, and Behavioral Economics: Thinking Outside the “APCO” Box


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  Research Commentary—Informing Privacy Research Through Information Systems, Psychology, and Behavioral Economics


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  The 1990s have seen a resurgence of interest in information privacy. Public opinion surveys show that many citizens are becoming greatly concerned about threats to their information privacy, with levels of such concern reaching all-time highs. Perhaps as a response to the growing concerns of citizens, the media are devoting more attention to privacy issues, and governmental regulation of the corporate privacy environment is increasing in many countries. Almost all developed countries have grappled with the trade-offs between open access to information—which enables economic efﬁciency—and an individual’s right to privacy. Consistent with these trade-offs, many recent incidents suggest that regulatory approaches to information privacy, corporate management of personal data, and consumer reactions are becoming tightly interwoven around the world. To provide some insights into these relationships, we develop a conceptual model and test it with a cross-cultural sample from 19 different countries.


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  A critical assessment of potential measurement biases in the technology acceptance model: three experiments


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  The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is widely used by researchers and practitioners to predict and explain user acceptance of information technologies. TAM models system usage intentions and behavior as a function of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The original scales for measuring the TAM constructs have been confirmed to be reliable and valid in several replications and applications spanning a range of technologies and user populations. However, a measurement bias may be present because the TAM instrument physicallygroupstogether the multiple items measuring each individual construct. Many scholars of instrument design would object to such item grouping, instead advocating that items from different constructs beintermixedin order to reduce “carryover” effects among the responses to multiple items targeting a specific construct, which might artificially inflate the observed reliability and validity. Three experiments involving two systems and a total of 708 subjects are reported which address whether such carryover biases are present in the TAM measures. All three studies found that itemgroupingvs. itemintermixinghad no significant effect (positive or negative) either on the high levels of reliability and validity of the TAM scales, or on the path coefficients linking them together. Ironically, open-ended verbal evaluations indicated that subjects were more confused and annoyed when items wereintermixed,suggesting a tendency toward “output interference” effects, which themselves could have a biasing effect. Our findings suggest that those who employ the TAM measures should continue using the original (grouped)format in order to best predict and explain user acceptance of information technology.


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  In this article, we introduce a new and general privacy framework called Pufferfish. The Pufferfish framework can be used to create new privacy definitions that are customized to the needs of a given application. The goal of Pufferfish is to allow experts in an application domain, who frequently do not have expertise in privacy, to develop rigorous privacy definitions for their data sharing needs. In addition to this, the Pufferfish framework can also be used to study existing privacy definitions.
              We illustrate the benefits with several applications of this privacy framework: we use it to analyze differential privacy and formalize a connection to attackers who believe that the data records are independent; we use it to create a privacy definition called hedging privacy, which can be used to rule out attackers whose prior beliefs are inconsistent with the data; we use the framework to define and study the notion of composition in a broader context than before; we show how to apply the framework to protect unbounded continuous attributes and aggregate information; and we show how to use the framework to rigorously account for prior data releases.


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  We show that the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) reduced data sharing online, but had the unintended consequence of increasing market concentration among technology vendors that provide support services to websites. We collect panel data on the web technology vendors selected by more than 27,000 top websites internationally. The week after the GDPR’s enforcement, website use of web technology vendors falls by 15% for EU residents. Websites that would face greater penalties under the GDPR drop more vendors. Websites are more likely to drop smaller vendors, which increases the relative concentration of the vendor market by 17%. Increased concentration predominantly arises among vendors that use personal data such as cookies, and from the increased relative shares of Facebook and Google-owned vendors, but not from website consent requests. These ﬁndings suggest increases in concentration are driven by website’s vendor choices rather than changes in user behavior.


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  Marketing Dataveillance and Digital Privacy: Using Theories of Justice to Understand Consumers’ Online Privacy Concerns


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  Technology used in online marketing has advanced to a state where collection, enhancement and aggregation of information are instantaneous. This proliferation of customer information focused technology brings with it a host of issues surrounding customer privacy. This article makes two key contributions to the debate concerning digital privacy. First, we use theories of justice to help understand the way consumers conceive of, and react to, privacy concerns. Specifically, it is argued that an important component of consumers’ privacy concerns relates to fairness judgments, which in turn comprise of the two primary components of distributive and procedural justice. Second, we make a number of prescriptions, aimed at both firms and regulators, based on the notion that consumers respond to perceived privacy violations in much the same way they would respond to an unfair exchange.


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  Privacy Notices as Tabula Rasa: An Empirical Investigation into How Complying with a Privacy Notice is Related to Meeting Privacy Expectations Online


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  Recent privacy scholarship has focused on the failure of adequate notice and consumer choice as a tool to address consumers’ privacy expectations online. However, there has not been a direct examination into how complying with a privacy notice is related to meeting privacy expectations online. This article reports the findings of two factorial vignette studies describing online consumer tracking, whereby respondents rated the degree to which online scenarios met their privacy expectations or complied with a privacy notice. The results suggest that respondents perceived the privacy notice as offering greater protections than it actually did. Perhaps most problematically, respondents projected the important factors of their privacy expectations onto the privacy notice. In other words, privacy notices became a tabula rasa for users’ privacy expectations. The findings provide guidance for policy makers and firms to avoid unnecessary privacy violations caused by an overreliance on privacy notices. Considering the importance of privacy notices in managing privacy online, more work should extend this study to shed light on how consumers understand notices and how their perceptions of privacy notices map to their privacy expectations, if at all.


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  The authors examine potential relationships among categories of personal information, beliefs about direct marketing, situational characteristics, specific privacy concerns, and consumers’ direct marketing shopping habits. Furthermore, the authors offer an assessment of the trade-offs consumers are willing to make when they exchange personal information for shopping benefits. The findings indicate that public policy and self-regulatory efforts to alleviate consumer privacy concerns should provide consumers with more control over the initial gathering and subsequent dissemination of personal information. Such efforts must also consider the type of information sought, because consumer concern and willingness to provide marketers with personal data vary dramatically by information type.


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  Understanding the value that individuals assign to the protection of their personal data is of great importance for business, law, and public policy. We use a ﬁeld experiment informed by behavioral economics and decision research to investigate individual privacy valuations and ﬁnd evidence of endowment and order effects. Individuals assigned markedly different values to the privacy of their data depending on (1) whether they were asked to consider how much money they would accept to disclose otherwise private information or how much they would pay to protect otherwise public information and (2) the order in which they considered different offers for their data. The gap between such values is large compared with that observed in comparable studies of consumer goods. The results highlight the sensitivity of privacy valuations to contextual, nonnormative factors.


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  The authors propose and find that the mixed results of prior research regarding disclosure antecedents are due in part to a failure to account for information sensitivity. Using prospect theory to examine willingness to disclose in an online service context, the authors propose and find that greater sensitivity of information requested produces weaker effects of customization benefits but stronger effects of information control and online privacy concern. The authors also find that customization benefits can overcome the negative effects of sensitive information requests when concern is lower or control is higher, and that perceived risk and firm trust are mechanisms through which disclosure antecedents operate. For theory, this research suggests that online disclosure models need to include sensitivity of information as a moderator. Moreover, the privacy paradox (consumers voice concerns but still disclose) may result from a failure to account for information sensitivity, since the authors find no effect of privacy concern on overall disclosure but find the predicted negative effect for higher sensitive information. For practice, our research suggests actionable strategies to aid online marketers in matching information requests with the needs and concerns of consumers by providing greater control and customization, enhancing firm trust, and adapting information requests to the situation.


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  Consumer privacy is at the center of an ongoing debate among business leaders, privacy activists, and government officials. Although corporations face competitive pressures to collect and use personal information about their customers, many consumers find some methods of collection and use of their personal information unfair. We present a justice theory framework that illustrates how consumer privacy concerns are shaped by the perceived fairness of corporate information practices. We describe a set of global principles, fair information practices, which were developed to balance consumer privacy concerns with an organization’s need to use personal information. We conclude by discussing three alternatives for implementing fair information practices with particular attention to the Internet: government regulation, industry self-regulation, and technological solutions.


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  Purpose – The question over who “owns” and controls consumer data on the internet is emerging as an important issue as individuals increasingly share more of their personal information with marketers in return for services and benefits. This paper aims to examine how compensating consumers for their personal information affects their expectations for data ownership and privacy control. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conduct two online scenario-based experiments with a sample of adult consumers. The results were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analysis of variance. Findings – The findings show that receiving compensation, especially when it is a monetary reward, reduces consumer expectations for privacy protection. These effects depend on whether the information provided to marketers is perceived to be sensitive in nature. Originality/value – While a number of privacy studies have investigated the effects of compensation on encouraging self-disclosure on the internet, there is a lack of research that examines the effect of compensation on privacy expectations. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first paper to test empirically the construct of information ownership in the context of privacy exchanges. 
  Keywords Compensation, Consumer protection, Information ownership, Internet privacy


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  A variety of new information technologies have emerged that clearly can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of marketing programs. However, the use of technologies such as computer matching or automatic order-entry systems to support marketing programs also can lead to legal and societal difficulties. The authors review the types of problems that marketers could encounter when using new information technologies. Particular attention is paid to the possibilities of being charged with (1) participating in collusive information exchanges, (2) maintaining an illegal “essential facility,” (3) storing or transmitting inaccurate and harmful information, and (4) violating the privacy rights of individuals. They offer ideas about how marketing managers and researchers can reduce the chances of facing these types of problems.


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  Unraveling the Personalization Paradox: The Effect of Information Collection and Trust-Building Strategies on Online Advertisement Effectiveness


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  Retailers gather data about customers’ online behavior to develop personalized service offers. Greater personalization typically increases service relevance and customer adoption, but paradoxically, it also may increase customers’ sense of vulnerability and lower adoption rates. To demonstrate this contradiction, an exploratory ﬁeld study on Facebook and secondary data about a personalized advertising campaign indicate sharp drops in click-through rates when customers realize their personal information has been collected without their consent. To investigate the personalization paradox, this study uses three experiments that conﬁrm a ﬁrm’s strategy for collecting information from social media websites is a crucial determinant of how customers react to online personalized advertising. When ﬁrms engage in overt information collection, participants exhibit greater clickthrough intentions in response to more personalized advertisements, in contrast with their reactions when ﬁrms collect information covertly. This effect reﬂects the feelings of vulnerability that consumers experience when ﬁrms undertake covert information collection strategies. Trust-building marketing strategies that transfer trust from another website or signal trust with informational cues can offset this negative effect. These studies help unravel the personalization paradox by explicating the role of information collection and its impact on vulnerability and click-through rates.  
  Keywords: Personalization paradox; Information collection; Trust-building strategies; Vulnerability; Psychological ownership


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  With the amount of online advertising on a steady rise, generic ads noticeably lose effectiveness. In order to break through the clutter, retailers employ a method called retargeting to tailor their advertisements to individual consumers based on inferred interests and preferences. However, while personalization should generally make ads more appealing, the authors use ﬁeld data to show that the effectiveness of retargeting considerably hinges on consumers’ trust in a respective retailer. To uncover the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon, they investigate how trust moderates the impact of ad personalization on consumers’ internal and external responses in the lab. They propose a two-dimensional conceptualization of ad personalization: First, a banner’s personalization depth deﬁnes how closely the ad reﬂects a consumer’s interests. Second, its personalization breadth determines how completely the banner reﬂects these interests. The lab results show that more trusted retailers can increase the perceived usefulness of their ads through a combination of high depth and narrow breadth of personalization without eliciting increased reactance or privacy concerns. On the other hand, for less trusted retailers, banners with higher depth are not perceived more useful, but instead trigger increased reactance and privacy concerns, regardless of their personalization breadth. These effects directly translate into consumers’ click-through intentions so that retailers should adjust their personalization strategies accordingly in order to increase the effectiveness of their online advertising. 
  Keywords: Retargeting; Online advertising; Personalization; Trust; Privacy; Reactance


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  Firms track consumers’ shopping behaviors in their online stores to provide individually personalized banners through a method called retargeting. We use data from two large-scale field experiments and two lab experiments to show that, although personalization can substantially enhance banner effectiveness, its impact hinges on its interplay with timing and placement factors. First, personalization increases click-through especially at an early information state of the purchase decision process. Here, banners with a high degree of content personalization (DCP) are most effective when a consumer has just visited the advertiser’s online store, but quickly lose effectiveness as time passes since that last visit. We call this phenomenon overpersonalization. Medium DCP banners, on the other hand, are initially less effective, but more persistent, so that they outperform high DCP banners over time. Second, personalization increases click-through irrespective of whether banners appear on motive congruent or incongruent display websites. In terms of view-through, however, personalization increases ad effectiveness only on motive congruent websites, but decreases it on incongruent websites. We demonstrate in the lab how perceptions of ad informativeness and intrusiveness drive these results depending on consumers’ experiential or goal-directed Web browsing modes. 
  Keywords: retargeting; online advertising; personalization; advertising effectiveness


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  We analyze the implications of consumer privacy for competition in the marketplace. Firms compete for
  consumer information and derive revenues both from consumer purchases as well as from disclosing
  consumer information in a secondary market. Consumers choose which firm to patronize and how much personal
  information to provide it with. We show that firms maximize profits by focusing on a single revenue source and
  competing at the extensive rather than the intensive margin, outperforming competitors by attracting a larger
  customer base. We also show that competition drives the provision of services with a low level of consumer
  information disclosure (high level of privacy), but higher competition intensity in the marketplace need not
  improve privacy when consumers exhibit low willingness to pay. Our findings are relevant to the business models
  of Internet firms and contribute to inform the regulatory debate on consumer privacy.
  Keywords: information acquisition; information disclosure; online privacy; privacy regulation


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  Data breach incidents are on the rise, and have resulted in severe financial and legal implications for the affected organizations. We apply the opportunity theory of crime, the institutional anomie theory, and institutional theory to identify factors that could increase or decrease the contextual risk of data breach. We investigate the risk of data breach in the context of an organization’s physical location, its primary industry, and the type of data breach that it may have suffered in the past. Given the location of an organization, the study finds support for application of the opportunity theory of crime and the institutional anomie theory in estimating the risk of data breach incidents within a state. In the context of the primary industry in which an organization operates, we find support for the institutional theory and the opportunity theory of crime in estimating risk of data breach incidents within an industry. Interestingly though, support for the opportunity theory of crime is partial. We find that investment in information technology (IT) security corresponds to a higher risk of data breach incidents within both a state and an industry, a result contrary to the one predicted by the opportunity theory of crime. A possible explanation for the contradiction is that investments in IT security are not being spent on the right kind of data security controls, a fact supported by evidence from the industry. The work has theoretical and practical implications. Theories from criminology are used to identify the risk factors of data breach incidents and the magnitude of their impact on the risk of data breach. Insights from the study can help IT security practitioners to assess the risk environment of their firm (in terms of data breaches) based on the firm’s location, its industry sector, and the kind of breaches that the firm may typically be prone to. 
  KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: computer crime, computer security, data breach, data theft,
  information security, IT security risks.


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  Coping with information requests in marketing exchanges: an examination of pre-post affective control and behavioral coping


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  This paper examines consumers’ personal information disclosure behaviors and how consumers emotionally respond to and behaviorally cope with requests for personal data. We show through two experiments that individuals’ felt emotions toward requests for information change based on the disclosure strategy chosen. We also provide evidence that individuals rely on falsification as a means of behaviorally coping with personal information requests and that falsification mediates pre-to-post disclosure control perceptions. Implications for marketers are discussed. 
  Keywords Coping . Control . Consumer information
  disclosure . Falsification


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  Online behavioral targeting (OBT), the tracking of a consumer’s online activities in order to develop a behavioral profile of the consumer, is a rapidly growing technique that enables advertisers to deliver relevant messages. While OBT provides many advantages to shoppers and advertisers alike, the practice has the technological potential to violate consumers’ privacy rights to a dangerous and unprecedented degree. Still, OBT is poorly understood by most consumers, is often nontransparent
  and deceptive, and in many cases does not even provide a reasonable chance to opt out. Due to OBT’s relative newness, few laws, regulations, and policies, as well as in-depth ethical analyses of the practice, exist. Actions by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), however, provide a notable exception. In a series of reports, in particular since 2009, the agency has engaged in dialogs with various stakeholders about OBT and the dangers it poses to consumers. Its efforts have also included legal enforcement activities. Within the context of these developments our article presents the evolution
  of the broader legal environment, including an ethical analysis of the FTC’s efforts. Our objective is to shed light on the issue from a normative perspective and to assist online advertisers as well as regulators searching for guidelines and policies on how to use OBT in a responsible manner.


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  In recent years, many lawsuits have been filed by individuals seeking legal redress for harms
  caused by the loss or theft of their personal information. However, very little is known about
  the drivers, mechanics, and outcomes of those lawsuits, making it difficult to assess the
  effectiveness of litigation at balancing organizations’ usage of personal data with individual
  privacy rights. Using a unique and manually collected database, we analyze court dockets for
  more than 230 federal data breach lawsuits from 2000 to 2010. We investigate two questions:
  Which data breaches are being litigated? and Which data breach lawsuits are settling? Our
  results suggest that the odds of a firm being sued are 3.5 times greater when individuals
  suffer financial harm, but 6 times lower when the firm provides free credit monitoring.
  Moreover, defendants settle 30 percent more often when plaintiffs allege financial loss, or
  when faced with a certified class action suit. By providing the first comprehensive empirical
  analysis of data breach litigation, our findings offer insight into the debate over privacy
  litigation versus privacy regulation.


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  Targeted Online Advertising: Using Reciprocity Appeals to Increase Acceptance among Users of Free Web Services


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  The Internet is dominated by free web services that depend on advertising revenues and powerful marketing tools to support their business models. Targeted online advertising enables websites to increase their advertising revenues by selectively displaying advertisements according to users’ browsing behavior, sociodemographics, and interests. Yet targeting also creates negative consumer reactions, and websites confront increasing regulatory pressures to inform consumers about their practices. It is critical for such advertising-supported websites to address those challenges proactively. In one scenario experiment and two field studies, the authors show that a normative reciprocity argument is generally more effective than the current industry practice of using a utilitarian argument related to advertising relevance to increase acceptance of targeted online advertising. However, in some cases, this dominance switches depending on specific website characteristics such as website utility and level of user-generated content. Managers of free websites should remind their users of the free services they enjoy when asking permission to target them online or to use their personal information. 
  Keywords: free web services, targeting, advertising, privacy concerns, reciprocity


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  This article investigates how Internet users’ perceptions of control over their personal information affect how likely they are to click on online advertising on a social networking website. The analysis uses data from a randomized field experiment that examined the effectiveness of personalizing ad text with user-posted personal information relative to generic text. The website gave users more control over their personally identifiable information in the middle of the field test. However, the website did not change how advertisers used data to target and personalize ads. Before the policy change, personalized ads did not perform particularly well. However, after this enhancement of perceived control over privacy, users were nearly twice as likely to click on personalized ads. Ads that targeted but did not use personalized text remained unchanged in effectiveness. The increase in effectiveness was larger for ads that used more unique private information to personalize their message and for target groups that were more likely to use opt-out privacy settings. 
  Keywords: privacy, online advertising, social networks


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  Two sets of studies illustrate the comparative nature of disclosure behavior. The first set investigates how divulgence is affected by signals about others' readiness to divulge and shows a “herding” effect: Survey respondents are more willing to divulge sensitive information when told that previous respondents have made sensitive disclosures (Study 1a). The authors provide evidence of the process underlying this effect and rule out alternative explanations by showing that information on others' propensity to disclose affects respondents' discomfort associated with divulgence (Study 1b) but not their interpretation of the questions (Study 1c). The second set of studies investigates how divulgence is affected by the order in which inquiries of varying intrusiveness are made and suggests that divulgence is anchored by the initial questions in a survey. People are particularly likely to divulge when questions are presented in decreasing order of intrusiveness and less likely when questions are presented in increasing order (Study 2a). The authors show that the effect arises by affecting people's judgments of the intrusiveness of the inquiries (Study 2b). The effect is altered when, at the outset of the study, privacy concerns are primed (Study 2c) and when respondents are made to consider the relative intrusiveness of a different set of questions (Study 2d). This research helps illuminate how consumers' propensity to disclose is affected by continual streams of requests for personal information and by the equally unavoidable barrage of personal information about others.
  Keywords: survey design, self-disclosure, electronic commerce, privacy


value:
  We test the hypothesis that increasing individuals’ perceived control over the release and access of private information—even information that allows them to be personally identified––will increase their willingness to disclose sensitive information. If their willingness to divulge increases sufficiently, such an increase in control can, paradoxically, end up leaving them more vulnerable. Our findings highlight how, if people respond in a sufficiently offsetting fashion, technologies designed to protect them can end up exacerbating the risks they face. 
  privacy, control, paradox, behavioral economics of privacy, Web 2.0 applications


value:
  When a firm can recognize its previous customers, it may use information about their past purchases to price discriminate. We study a model with a monopolist and a continuum of heterogeneous consumers, where consumers have the ability to maintain their anonymity and avoid being identified as past customers, possibly at a cost. When consumers can freely maintain their anonymity, they all individually choose to do so, which results in the highest profit for the monopolist. Increasing the cost of anonymity can benefit consumers but only up to a point, after which the effect is reversed. We show that if the monopolist or an independent third party controls the cost of anonymity, it often works to the detriment of consumers. 
  Key words: anonymity; customer recognition; price discrimination; identity management


value:
  The authors propose and find that the mixed results of prior research regarding disclosure antecedents are due in part to a failure to account for information sensitivity. Using prospect theory to examine willingness to disclose in an online service context, the authors propose and find that greater sensitivity of information requested produces weaker effects of customization benefits but stronger effects of information control and online privacy concern. The authors also find that customization benefits can overcome the negative effects of sensitive information requests when concern is lower or control is higher, and that perceived risk and firm trust are mechanisms through which disclosure antecedents operate. For theory, this research suggests that online disclosure models need to include sensitivity of information as a moderator. Moreover, the privacy paradox (consumers voice concerns but still disclose) may result from a failure to account for information sensitivity, since the authors find no effect of privacy concern on overall disclosure but find the predicted negative effect for higher sensitive information. For practice, our research suggests actionable strategies to aid online marketers in matching information requests with the needs and concerns of consumers by providing greater control and customization, enhancing firm trust, and adapting information requests to the situation. 
  Keywords: online disclosure, privacy concern, sensitivity of information, prospect theory, website customization, information control


value:
  <b>Research Note</b> —Effects of Individual Self-Protection, Industry Self-Regulation, and Government Regulation on Privacy Concerns


value:
  This study seeks to clarify the nature of control in the context of information privacy to generate insights into the effects of different privacy assurance approaches on context-specific concerns for information privacy. We theorize that such effects are exhibited through mediation by perceived control over personal information and develop arguments in support of the interaction effects involving different privacy assurance approaches (individual self-protection, industry self-regulation, and government legislation). We test the research model in the context of location-based services using data obtained from 178 individuals in Singapore. In general, the results support our core assertion that perceived control over personal information is a key factor affecting context-specific concerns for information privacy. In addition to enhancing our theoretical understanding of the link between control and privacy concerns, these findings have important implications for service providers and consumers as well as for regulatory bodies and technology developers. 
  Key words: privacy; context-specific concerns for information privacy; psychological control; control agency;
  individual self-protection; industry self-regulation; and government regulation


value:
  We use data from a large-scale field experiment to explore what influences the effectiveness of online advertising. We find that matching an ad to website content and increasing an ad's obtrusiveness independently increase purchase intent. However, in combination, these two strategies are ineffective. Ads that match both website content and are obtrusive do worse at increasing purchase intent than ads that do only one or the other. This failure appears to be related to privacy concerns: the negative effect of combining targeting with obtrusiveness is strongest for people who refuse to give their income and for categories where privacy matters most. Our results suggest a possible explanation for the growing bifurcation in Internet advertising between highly targeted plain text ads and more visually striking but less targeted ads.
  Key words: e-commerce; privacy; advertising; targeting


value:
  Advertisers use online customer data to target their marketing appeals. This has heightened consumers' privacy concerns, leading governments to pass laws designed to protect consumer privacy by restricting the use of data and by restricting online tracking techniques used by websites. We use the responses of 3.3 million survey takers who had been randomly exposed to 9,596 online display (banner) advertising campaigns to explore how privacy regulation in the European Union (EU) has influenced advertising effectiveness. This privacy regulation restricted advertisers' ability to collect data on Web users in order to target ad campaigns. We find that, on average, display advertising became far less effective at changing stated purchase intent after the EU laws were enacted, relative to display advertising in other countries. The loss in effectiveness was more pronounced for websites that had general content (such as news sites), where non-data-driven targeting is particularly hard to do. The loss of effectiveness was also more pronounced for ads with a smaller presence on the webpage and for ads that did not have additional interactive, video, or audio features.
   Key words: privacy; online advertising; targeting


value:
  New marketing paradigms that exploit the capabilities for data collection, aggregation, and dissemination introduced by the Internet provide benefits to consumers
  but also pose real or perceived privacy hazards. In four experiments, we seek to
  understand consumer decisions to reveal or withhold information and the relationship between such decisions and objective hazards posed by information revelation. Our central thesis, and a central finding of all four experiments, is that
  disclosure of private information is responsive to environmental cues that bear little
  connection, or are even inversely related, to objective hazards. We address underlying processes and rule out alternative explanations by eliciting subjective
  judgments of the sensitivity of inquiries (experiment 3) and by showing that the
  effect of cues diminishes if privacy concern is activated at the outset of the experiment (experiment 4). This research highlights consumer vulnerabilities in navigating increasingly complex privacy issues introduced by new information technologies.


value:
  Firms are collecting more information about their customers than ever before in an attempt to understand and better serve customer needs. At the same time, firms are becoming more vulnerable to the compromise of customer information through security breaches. This study attempts to associate breach reports with the decline in market value of firms using an event study. The results show that firms suffer significant market value depreciation over a short as well as a long time window. Further, the greatest devaluation occurs when larger amounts of customer information are compromised at large companies. Due to the greater potential of customer backlash, negative publicity and liability risk, managers must view customer information breaches as service failures rather than as information system failures. Employing established service failure recovery strategies may allow firms to quickly and proactively address customer privacy concerns and thereby mitigate negative market reaction to information breaches.
  Keywords
  customer information breach, information privacy, service failures, service recovery, event study


value:
  Although online retailers detail their privacy practices in online privacy policies, this information often remains invisible to consumers, who seldom make the effort to read and understand those policies. This paper reports on research undertaken to determine whether a more prominent display of privacy information will cause consumers to incorporate privacy considerations into their online purchasing decisions. We designed an experiment in which a shopping search engine interface clearly and compactly displays privacy policy information. When such information is made available, consumers tend to purchase from online retailers who better protect their privacy. In fact, our study indicates that when privacy information is made more salient and accessible, some consumers are willing to pay a premium to purchase from privacy protective websites. This result suggests that businesses may be able to leverage privacy protection as a selling point.
  Keywords: Privacy, Information Systems, Economics, Experimental Economics, E-Commerce


value:
  Are There Differences between Consumers’ and Marketers’ Privacy Expectations? A Segment- and Technology-Level Analysis


value:
  Despite previous examinations of business actions, consumer reactions, and regulatory efforts, there has been no direct comparison of consumer and marketer expectations for establishing and respecting privacy boundaries. This study directly compares consumer segments’ and marketers’ expectations for privacy boundaries that regulate marketers’ access to consumers and their information. Using data from a national online survey, the authors compare three consumer segments’ preferences regarding the boundaries for the use of eight information technologies (cookies, biometrics, loyalty cards, radio frequency identification, text messaging, pop-up advertisements, telemarketing, and spam) with survey results of marketing managers and database vendors for the same set of questions. The results identify consumer segments and technologies for which consumer expectations differ from marketers and, thus, for which more regulatory and public policy attention and research scholarship is needed. Keywords: privacy, information technologies, consumer segmentation, opt-in/opt-out, managers versus
  consumers


value:
  Protecting the privacy of personal information continues to
  pose significant challenges for organizations. Because con
  sumers are vulnerable in their dealings with businesses due
  to a lack of information about and an inability to control the
  subsequent use of their personal information, we argue that
  organizations have a moral responsibility to these individuals
  to avoid causing harm and to take reasonable precautions
  toward that end. We further argue that firms can enhance
  their privacy programs by moving beyond merely complying
  with laws and other regulations and creating a culture of
  Detmar Straub was the accepting senior editor for this paper.
  Both authors contributed equally.
  integrity that combines a concern for the law with an empha
  sis on managerial responsibility for the firm 's organizational
  privacy behaviors. We use two high-profile data breaches
  experienced by two U.S. companies, ChoicePoint and TJX, to
  illustrate our arguments for enhancing organizational level
  privacy programs based on ethical reasoning. In doing so,
  this paper contributes to the dearth of prior organizational
  level privacy research, which has largely overlooked ethical
  issues or the personal harms often caused by privacy viola
  tions. We conclude with recommendations for ways organiza
  tions can improve their privacy programs by incorporating
  moral responsibility. 
  Keywords: Organizational privacy, information ethics, moral
  responsibility, information risk management, information
  management practices


value:
  Relationship marketing typically requires organizations to continually collect customer information. Two distinct approaches coexist to encourage customers to disclose information: reducing privacy concern and building trust, which in the past have been examined in isolation. In the present study, regulatory focus theory is used to integrate both approaches and examine their distinct response behaviors concurrently. The findings are robust across two studies with different methods and contexts. As suggested in the proposed model, trust and privacy concern are the two central mediating variables with differentiated effects on promotion and prevention-focused behaviors. Specifically, trust mediates fairness perceptions on promotion-focused behaviors (i.e., relational behavior, relationship investment, and repatronage intentions), whereas privacy concern mediates fairness perceptions on prevention-focused behaviors (i.e., defensive, deflective, and disruptive behaviors). Implications for theory and practice are discussed. 
  Keywords: regulatory focus theory; justice; trust; privacy concern; information disclosure; promotion- and preventionfocused behaviors


value:
  Online Privacy and the Disclosure of Cookie Use: Effects on Consumer Trust and Anticipated Patronage


value:
  The use of Internet cookies by visited Web sites and third-party firms has been criticized by consumer advocates, policy makers, and even marketers themselves as a potential threat to consumer privacy. However, surprisingly little research has examined how the interactive effects of the disclosure and practice of cookie use as a method of nonconsensual identification might influence online users’ affect or behavior. The current research addresses this lack of research by presenting the results of three studies. Study 1, a longitudinal examination of the online environment from 2000 to 2007, finds that both cookie use and disclosure have increased, but the covert use of cookies is still a concern. Study 2 finds that consumers’ negative reactions to cookie use are significantly reduced by a priori cookie disclosure by the visited Web site. Study 3 shows that consumers’ online experience and desire for privacy act as additional moderators of reactions to cookie use. The author examines the implications of the three studies from the perspectives of research, management, and public policy. 
  Keywords: covert marketing, privacy, disclosure, information disclosure, Internet, cookies, trust,
  e-commerce


value:
  The U.S. legislation at both the federal and state levels mandates certain organizations to inform customers about information uses and disclosures. Such disclosures are typically accomplished through privacy policies, both online and ofﬂine. Unfortunately, the policies are not easy to comprehend, and, as a result, online consumers frequently do not read the policies provided at healthcare Web sites. Because these policies are often required by law, they should be clear so that consumers are likely to read them and to ensure that consumers can comprehend these policies. This, in turn, may increase consumer trust and encourage consumers to feel more comfortable when interacting with online organizations. In this paper, we present results of an empirical study, involving 993 Internet users, which compared various ways to present privacy policy information to online consumers. Our ﬁndings suggest that users perceive typical, paragraph-form policies to be more secure than other forms of policy representation, yet user comprehension of such paragraph-form policies is poor as compared to other policy representations. The results of this study can help managers create more trustworthy policies, aid compliance ofﬁcers in detecting deceptive organizations, and serve legislative bodies by providing tangible evidence as to the ineffectiveness of current privacy policies.
  Index Terms—E-commerce, end user computing management,
  healthcare, privacy management, privacy policy, trust, user computer interaction.


value:
  Research on the effects of personalized messages on consumers’ behavioral responses has yielded mixed findings. We explore how e-mail personalization influences click-through intentions. Our results suggest that consumers experience personalization reactance in response to highly personalized messages when the fit between the offer in the message and consumers’ personal characteristics is not explicitly justified by firms. Consequently, consumers are less willing to respond favorably to the offer. Results of two studies suggest that this effect primarily emerges for consumers who perceive the utility of the service to be relatively low. For those consumers with higher perceived utility, justification of personalization is less important because highly personalized messages are less likely to elicit reactance. 
  Keywords Personalization . Reactance . Relationships. Email . Consumers


value:
  Petite histoire de la Directive européenne sur la vie privée et les communications électroniques ou le revirement de l’Europe


value:
  Encensée par les associations de protection des consommateurs, vilipendée par les associations de défense des droits de l’homme, la Directive européenne du 12 juillet 2002 sur la vie privée et les communications électroniques suscite des réactions pour le moins contradictoires de la part d’organismes qui d’ordinaire partagent les mêmes positions et collaborent volontiers en matière de protection de la vie privée et des données personnelles. L’examen de ces positions révèle en fait non pas une contradiction, mais des réactions partielles et volontairement cantonnées chacune à une seule des implications d’un texte qui comporte deux enjeux principaux : d’une part la protection de la vie privée et des données personnelles vis-à-vis de l’exploitation commerciale de ces informations ; d’autre part la protection de la vie privée et des données personnelles vis-à-vis des atteintes aux droits et libertés fondamentaux des personnes. L’historique de l’adoption de ce texte, qui s’étend sur deux années pleines depuis sa proposition par la Commission européenne le 12 juillet 2000 jusqu’à son adoption le 12 juillet 2002, est intéressant à plus d’un titre : il révèle les positions et tensions qui traversent le Parlement européen, dont les travaux sont en général mal connus des citoyens des États membres ; il montre l’influence des enjeux politiques — parfois politiciens — nationaux sur les travaux européens ; il témoigne de l’impact des attentats du 11 septembre 2001 sur le changement de politique au niveau européen ; il met en lumière l’étroitesse de la marge de manœuvre du Parlement vis-à-vis des gouvernements nationaux, malgré ses attributions officielles ; enfin, il signe le revirement de l’Europe, qui abandonne ainsi un principe pourtant bien établi, celui de l’interdiction de toute surveillance systématique des communications, et ouvre la voie à des atteintes toujours plus importantes aux droits fondamentaux et aux libertés publiques. La première partie de cet article présente la situation antérieure, le contexte de proposition de la nouvelle Directive et les modifications qu’elle induit sur la protection de la vie privée et des données personnelles dans le secteur des communications électroniques. Les deuxième et troisième parties sont consacrées à l’analyse des rapports de force et des positions des différents acteurs institutionnels ou de la société civile à travers deux controverses, concernant respectivement l’utilisation commerciale des données personnelles et leur usage aux fins de surveillance par les autorités de police et de justice. La quatrième partie examine les enjeux politiques du compromis atteint. Dans une cinquième partie, nous retraçons, à travers la chronique du vote du Parlement européen en deuxième lecture, les principaux problèmes posés par l’adoption de cette Directive, du point de vue de la démocratie comme en termes de respect des fondements juridiques de la construction européenne.


value:
  Processes introducing biometric identity control and communicating activity controls through data retention sign, in France and Europe, a reversal of perspective. Taking into account the legislative and regulatory transformations as well as the strategies of government and industry actors, and considering the various means of consent from the general public, we will analyze several levels of this change ofparadigm: security objectives centered on intelligence rather than legal investigation; legislative and judicial proceedings oriented towards soft and contract law; intervention ofprivate actors with prerogatives ofpublic power; preventive rather than repressive civil or penal actions, specially through the use of technical means; sometimes inversion of the burden ofthe proof, requiring proving innocence rather than gUilt. This results in the change from a conception of society based on mutual trust into a situation of generalized suspicion.


value:
  Décision du Conseil Constitionnel Décision n° 2004-499 DC du 29 juillet 2004 Loi relative à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard des traitements de données à caractère personnel et modifiant la loi n° 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative à l'informatique, aux fichiers et aux libertés


value:
  Loi n° 70-643 du 17 juillet 1970 tendant à renforcer la garantie des droits individuels des citoyens


value:
  Loi n° 70-643 du 17 juillet 1970 tendant à renforcer la garantie des droits individuels des citoyens (1).


value:
  Over the past few decades, governments worldwide have grappled with their approaches to regulating
  issues associated with information privacy. However, research on individuals’ perceptions of regulatory
  protections and the relationships between those perceptions and behavioral choices has been sparse.
  In this study, we develop and test a model that considers relationships between an antecedent
  variable (regulatory knowledge); a mediating structure that encompasses perceived privacy regulatory
  protection, trust, and privacy risk concerns; two outcome variables (protection behavior and regulatory
  preferences); and direct and moderating effects of perceived rewards. Using a sample of young UK
  consumers that we collected in cooperation with the European Commission, we find strong support for
  our overall model and for most of our hypotheses.
  We discuss implications for research, managerial practice, and regulation.


value:
  Information privacy refers to the desire of individuals to control or have some influence over data about themselves. Advances in information technology have raised concerns about information privacy and its impacts, and have motivated Information Systems researchers to explore information privacy issues, including technical solutions to address these concerns. In this paper, we inform researchers about the current state of information privacy research in IS through a critical analysis of the IS literature that considers information privacy as a key construct. The review of the literature reveals that information privacy is a multilevel concept, but rarely studied as such. We also find that information privacy research has been heavily reliant on studentbased and USA-centric samples, which results in findings of limited generalizability. Information privacy research focuses on explaining and predicting theoretical contributions, with few studies in journal articles focusing on design and action contributions. We recommend that future research should consider different levels of analysis as well as multilevel effects of information privacy. We illustrate this with a multilevel framework for information privacy concerns. We call for research on information privacy to use a broader diversity of sampling populations, and for more design and action information privacy research to be published in journal articles that can result in IT artifacts for protection or control of information privacy.



  Keywords: Information privacy, privacy, level of analysis, information privacy framework, information privacy concern


value:
  This article examines privacy as a generic process that occurs in all cultures but that also differs among cultures in terms of the behavioral mechanisms used to regulate desired levels of privacy. Ethnographic data are examined from a variety of cultures, particularly from societies with apparently maximum and minimum privacy, and from analyses of various social relationships, such as parents and children, in-laws, husbands and wives. It is concluded that privacy is a universal process that involves culturally unique regulatory mechanisms.


value:
  This article provides a framework for analyzing privacy in modern societies, defining information privacy and describing three levels that structure the values assigned to privacy. After describing a contemporary privacy baseline (1945–1960),
  these concepts are applied to social and political privacy developments in three
  contemporary eras of steadily growing privacy concerns and societal responses
  across citizen-government, employee-employer, and consumer-business relationships in 1961–1979, 1980–1989, and 1990–2002. Each period is described in
  terms of new technology applications, changing social climates, and organizational and legal developments. Effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on privacy
  balances are analyzed and predictions for future privacy developments are presented. The relationship of articles in this issue to the author’s framework is noted
  throughout.


value:
  https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2016/01/PI_2016.01.14_Privacy-and-Info-Sharing_FINAL.pdf


value:
  privé
  (latin privatus, individuel)

  Qui ne dépend pas directement de l'État, de son administration, de son budget, par opposition à public ou étatique.


value:
  Définition
  Définition de privé ​​​
  , privée ​​​
  adjectif et nom
  Où le public n'a pas accès, n'est pas admis. Propriété privée. Club privé. Audience privée. En privé locution adverbiale : seul à seul. Puis-je vous parler en privé ?
  Individuel, particulier (opposé à collectif, commun, public). Des intérêts privés.
  Personnel. ➙ intime. Vie professionnelle et vie privée. nom masculin Ils se tutoient dans le privé, dans l'intimité.
  Qui n'a aucune part aux affaires publiques. En tant que personne privée : en tant que simple citoyen. ➙ particulier. (opposé à officiel) Chef d'État qui séjourne à titre privé dans un pays étranger. De source privée, on apprend que… ➙ officieux.
  (opposé à public, national) Qui n'est pas d'État, ne dépend pas de l'État. Enseignement privé. ➙ libre. Le secteur privé (➙ privatiser). nom masculin familier Le privé : le secteur privé.
  Détective* privé. nom familier Un, une privé(e).

  Synonymes
  Synonymes de privé, privée adjectif

  intime, intérieur, personnel, propre

  particulier, domestique, personnel, privatif, réservé

  officieux

  [enseignement] libre
  Synonymes de en privé

  en particulier, dans l'intimité, en tête à tête, seul à seul, entre quat'z'yeux (familier)


value:
  Effects of Individual Self-Protection, Industry Self-Regulation, and Government Regulation on Privacy Concerns: A Study of Location-Based Services


value:
  Le droit au respect de la vie privée a été affirmé en 1948 par la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme des Nations unies. La jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel consacre la valeur constitutionnelle de ce droit.


value:
  Droit au respect de la vie privée et familiale - La Convention européenne des droits de l’homme - www.coe.int


value:
  The History of Information Security A Comprehensive Handbook (Karl Maria Michael de Leeuw, Jan Bergstra) (Z-Library).pdf


value:
  Examining the impact of privacy, Security, and trust on the TAM and TTF models for e-commerce consumers: A pilot study


value:
  Examining the impact of privacy, Security, and trust on the TAM and TTF models for e-commerce consumers


value:
  This paper examines the impact of privacy, security, and trust (PST) on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Task-Technology Fit (TTF) model for consumers of e-commerce. The findings of this pilot study were drawn by designing a structural equation model (SEM) on the impact of privacy, security, and trust (PST) on TAM and TTF models for consumers of e-commerce. The population for this pilot study was university academics and the data was analyzed using SPSS and WarpPLS software. Findings indicate that privacy has a significant influence on perceived usefulness, while Security and trust, have a significant influence on the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Moreover, perceived usefulness has a significant influence on the behavioral intention to use, which in turn has a significant influence on the actual use. Similarly, the TTF model has a significant influence on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, but it does not have an influence on the behavioral intention to use.


value:
  Privacy research is divided in distinct communities and rarely considered as a singular ﬁeld. This is harmful to its disciplinary identity. We used a bibliometric network analysis as a quantitative technique to investigate the privacy research community by its collective output and identify its core theories. The network consists of 83,159 publications with 462,633 internal references in 90 distinct topics. The 112 most inﬂuential publications in the privacy research community were selected through centrality measures, providing 11 core theories that see widespread adoption in privacy research. We found a gap between research on the individual and organisational levels of analysis, ﬁnding the latter underrepresented in the ﬁeld’s inﬂuential theories. We propose the Pillars of Privacy framework as a high-level multilevel framework for privacy research. The framework classiﬁes core theories on four levels of analysis along three pillars of privacy research: Privacy Concern, Privacy Calculus and Behavioural Outcomes.


value:
  Twenty-Ninth European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS 2021), [Marrakesh, Morocco|A Virtual AIS Conference]


value:
  This review summarizes and draws connections between diverse streams of empirical research on privacy behavior. We use three themes to connect insights from social and behavioral sciences: people’s uncertainty about the consequences of privacy‐related behaviors and their own preferences over those consequences; the context dependence of people’s concern, or lack thereof, about privacy; and the degree to which privacy concerns and malleable – manipulable by commercial and governmental interests. Organizing our discussion by these themes, we offer observations concerning the role of public policy in the protection of privacy in the information age.


value:
  The impact of reversibility on the decision to disclose personal information Peer Acquisti-JCM-2016.pdf


value:
  The Impact of Privacy Regulation and Technology Incentives: The Case of Health Information Exchanges


value:
  Health information exchanges (HIEs) are healthcare information technology efforts designed to foster coordination of patient care across the fragmented U.S. healthcare system. Their purpose is to improve efficiency and quality of care through enhanced sharing of patient data. Across the United States, numerous states have enacted laws that provide various forms of incentives for HIEs and address growing privacy concerns associated with the sharing of patient data. We investigate the impact on the emergence of HIEs of state laws that incentivize HIE efforts and state laws that include different types of privacy requirements for sharing healthcare data, focusing on the impact of laws that include requirements for patient consent. Although we observe that privacy regulation alone can result in a decrease in planning and operational HIEs, we also find that, when coupled with incentives, privacy regulation with requirements for patient consent can actually positively impact the development of HIE efforts. Among all states with laws creating HIE incentives, only states that combined incentives with consent requirements saw a net increase in operational HIEs; HIEs in those states also reported decreased levels of privacy concern relative to HIEs in states with other legislative approaches. Our results contribute to the burgeoning literature on health information technology and the debate on the impact of privacy regulation on technology innovation. In particular, they show that the impact of privacy regulation on the success of information technology efforts is heterogeneous: both positive and negative effects can arise from regulation, depending on the specific attributes of privacy laws.
              This paper was accepted by Anandhi Bharadwaj, information systems.


value:
  Purpose
                This paper aims to examine how reversibility in disclosing personal information – that is, having (vs not having) to option to later revise or retract personal information – can impact consumers’ willingness to divulge personal information.
              
              
                Design/methodology/approach
                Three studies examined how informing consumers they may (reversible condition) or may not (irreversible condition) revise their personal information in the future affected their propensity to disclose personal information, compared to a control condition.
              
              
                Findings
                Study 1 (which included three experiments with different time intervals between initial and revised disclosure) showed that consumers disclose less in both the reversible and irreversible conditions, compared to the control condition. Studies 2 and 3 showed that this is because consumers treat reversibility as a cue to the sensitivity of the information they are asked to divulge, and that leads them to disclose less when reversibility or irreversibility is made explicitly salient beforehand.
              
              
                Practical implications
                As many marketers are interested in hoarding consumers’ personal information, privacy advocates call for methods that would ensure careful and well-informed disclosure. Offering reversibility to a decision to disclose personal information, or merely pointing out the irreversibility of that decision, can make consumers reevaluate the sensitivity of the situation, leading to more careful disclosures.
              
              
                Originality/value
                Although previous research on reversibility in consumer behavior focused on product return policies and showed that reversibility increases purchases, none have studied how reversibility affects self-disclosure and how it can decrease it.


value:
  Long-standing policy approaches to privacy protection are centered on consumer notice and control and assume that privacy decision making is a deliberative process of comparison between costs and benefits from information disclosure. An emerging body of work, however, documents the powerful effects of factors unrelated to objective trade-offs in privacy settings. In this paper, we investigate how focusing on the process by which individuals make privacy choices can help explain the impact of rational and behavioral factors on privacy decision making. In an online experiment, we borrow from query-theory literature and measure individuals’ considerations (that is, queries) across manipulations of rational and behavioral factors. We find that effects of rational and behavioral factors are associated with differences in the order and valence of queries considered in privacy settings. Our results confirm that understanding how differences in privacy choice emerge can help harmonize disparate perspectives on privacy decision making.


value:
  https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/senate-and-constitution/constitution.htm#amendments


value:
  "De tous les carrefours importants, le visage à la moustache noire vous fixait du regard. Il y en avait un sur le mur d'en face. BIG BROTHER VOUS REGARDE, répétait la légende, tandis que le regard des yeux noirs pénétrait les yeux de Winston... Au loin, un hélicoptère glissa entre les toits, plana un moment, telle une mouche bleue, puis repartit comme une flèche, dans un vol courbe. C'était une patrouille qui venait mettre le nez aux fenêtres des gens. Mais les patrouilles n'avaient pas d'importance. Seule comptait la Police de la Pensée." George Orwell dépeint dans le prophétique 1984 un terrifiant monde totalitaire. [4e de couv.]


value:
  A milestone document in the history of human rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights set out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. It has been translated into over 500 languages.


value:
  https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/le-bloc-de-constitutionnalite/declaration-des-droits-de-l-homme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789


value:
  There's a 21st Century War on Privacy being waged by Big Tech, and they're leveraging vague laws. How can we fight back?


value:
  Records, Computers and the Rights of Citizens: Report of the HEW Advisory Committee on Automated Personal Data Systems


value:
  L'Assemblée nationale refuse par 258 voix contre 217 de constituer une commission d'enquête sur les écoutes téléphoniques


value:
  https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1973/12/17/l-assemblee-nationale-refuse-par-258-voix-contre-217-de-constituer-une-commission-d-enquete-sur-les-ecoutes-telephoniques_3143621_1819218.html


value:
  Office of Science and Technology of the Executive Office of the President, Privacy and Behavioral Research (Washington, D.C., 1967), p. 8.


value:
  En ordre dispersé, les départements ministériels tentent de développer à leur profit, à leur seul usage, l'informatique et son outil, l'ordinateur. Ce n'est pas tout à fait un hasard si, à l'époque où le Journal officiel va publier un arrêté créant une


value:
  https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1974/03/21/une-division-de-l-informatique-est-creee-a-la-chancellerie-safari-ou-la-chasse-aux-francais_3086610_1819218.html


value:
  Consider a data holder, such as a hospital or a bank, that has a privately held collection of person-specific, field structured data. Suppose the data holder wants to share a version of the data with researchers. How can a data holder release a version of its private data with scientific guarantees that the individuals who are the subjects of the data cannot be re-identified while the data remain practically useful? The solution provided in this paper includes a formal protection model named k-anonymity and a set of accompanying policies for deployment. A release provides k-anonymity protection if the information for each person contained in the release cannot be distinguished from at least k-1 individuals whose information also appears in the release. This paper also examines re-identification attacks that can be realized on releases that adhere to k-anonymity unless accompanying policies are respected. The k-anonymity protection model is important because it forms the basis on which the real-world systems known as Datafly, μ-Argus and k-Similar provide guarantees of privacy protection.

      Data anonymitydata privacyre-identificationdata fusionprivacy


value:
  Information privacy has been called one of the
  most important ethical issues of the information age. Public opinion polls show rising levels of concern about privacy among Americans.
  Against this backdrop, research into issues
  associated with information privacy is increasing. Based on a number of preliminary studies, it has become apparent that organizational
  practices, individuals' perceptions of these practices, and societal responses are inextricably linked in many ways. Theories regarding
  these relationships are slowly emerging.
  Unfortunately, researchers attempting to
  examine such relationships through confirmatory empirical approaches may be impeded by the lack of validated instruments for measuring individuals' concerns about organizational information privacy practices.
  To enable future studies in the information privacy research stream, we developed and validated an instrument that identifies and measures the primary dimensions of individuals' concerns about organizational information privacy practices. The development process included examinations of privacy literature;
  experience surveys and focus groups;and the use of expert judges. The result was a parsimonious 15-item instrument with four subscales tapping into dimensions of individuals' concerns about organizational information privacy practices. The instrument was rigorously tested and validated across several heterogenous populations,providing a high degree of confidence in the scales' validity,reliability,
  and generalizability.
  Privacy, LISREL,ethical issues,
  measures, reliability, validity


value:
  Loi autorisant la visite des véhicules en vue de la recherche et de la prévention des infractions pénales


value:
  Loi autorisant l'approbation de la convention d'application de l'accord de Schengen du 14 juin 1985 entre les gouvernements des Etats de l'Union économique Benelux, de la République fédérale d'Allemagne et de la République française relatif à la suppression graduelle des contrôles aux frontières communes


value:
  Discussion on privacy issues is as old as mankind. Starting with the protection of one’s body and home, it soon evolved in the direction of controlling one’s personal information. In 1891, the American lawyers Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis described the right to privacy in a famous article: it is the right to be let alone. In 1967 a new milestone was reached with the publication of Alan Westin’s Privacy and Freedom when he defined privacy in terms of self determination: privacy is the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others.

  History of privacy makes clear that there is a strong relationship between privacy and the development of technology. The modern discussion started with the use of cameras and went on to include the development and use of computers in an information society in which personal data on every individual is collected and stored. Not only is it a great concern that privacy is eroding but also that we are entering a surveillance society. This loss of privacy seems to be even more the case since the protection of privacy is strongly dependant upon the political will to protect it. Since 9/11, however, this political will world-wide is oriented more toward the effective and efficient use of technology in the battle against criminality and terrorism than it is toward protecting privacy. Therefore it is time to re-evaluate the use of technology and the protection of privacy. It is not only privacy that is at stake but above all democracy.

  Keywords
      Data protection
      information
      information technology
      information society
      privacy
      self regulation
      surveillance society
      vulnerability


value:
  If we are to understand privacy as a future as well as a contemporary social issue, we must understand privacy as a concept. Individuals' concepts of privacy are tied to concrete situations in everyday life.
  These situations are described in terms of three dimensions: self-ego, environmental, and interpersonal. In combination with the dynamic of time, both developmental and sociohistorical, this situational analysis helps us to understand individual perceptions of privacy and privacy invasion, to predict potential privacy or invasion experiences, and to see the potential effects of the absence of certain privacy-related experiences.


value:
  Conclusions de l'avocat général Alber présentées le 26 octobre 2000.   Commission des Communautés européennes contre République française.   Manquement d'Etat - Directive 97/66/CE - Traitement des données à caractère personnel et protection de la vie privée dans le secteur des télécommunications - Non-transposition.   Affaire C-151/00.


value:
  Loi relative à la prévention de la corruption et à la transparence de la vie économique et des procédures publiques


value:
  Directive 97/66/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 15 décembre 1997 concernant le traitement des données à caractère personnel et la protection de la vie privée dans le secteur des télécommunications - Légifrance


value:
  Directive 95/46/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 24 octobre 1995 relative à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard du traitement des données à caractère personnel et à la libre circulation de ces données - Légifrance


value:
  This paper provides a general treatment of privacy amplification by public discussion, a concept introduced by Bennett, Brassard and Robert [l] for a special scenario. The results have applications to unconditionally-secure secret-key agreement protocols, quantum cryptography and to a non-asymptotic and constructive treatment of the secrecy capacity of wire-tap and broadcast channels, even for a considerably strengthened definition of secrecy capacity.


value:
  The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations (N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%–60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%–52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.


value:
  A fruitful direction for future data mining research will be the development of techniques that incorporate privacy concerns. Specifically, we address the following question. Since the primary task in data mining is the development of models about aggregated data, can we develop accurate models without access to precise information in individual data records? We consider the concrete case of building a decision-tree classifier from training data in which the values of individual records have been perturbed. The resulting data records look very different from the original records and the distribution of data values is also very different from the original distribution. While it is not possible to accurately estimate original values in individual data records, we propose a novel reconstruction procedure to accurately estimate the distribution of original data values. By using these reconstructed distributions, we are able to build classifiers whose accuracy is comparable to the accuracy of classifiers built with the original data.


value:
  The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders


value:
  for the better part of 30 years now, corporate executives have struggled with the
  issue of the firm's responsibility to its society. Early on it was argued by some that the
  corporation's sole responsibility was to provide a
  maximum financial return to shareholders. It
  became quickly apparent to everyone, however,
  that this pursuit of financial gain had to take
  place within the laws of the land. Though social
  activist groups and others throughout the 1960s
  advocated a broader notion of corporate responsibility, it was not until the significant social legislation of the early 1970s that this message became indelibly clear as a result of the creation of
  the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the
  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
  (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Consumer Product
  Safety Commission (CPSC).
  These new governmental bodies established
  that national public policy now officially recognized the environment, employees, and consumers to be significant and legitimate stakeholders
  of business. From that time on, corporate executives have had to wrestle with how they balance their commitments to the corporation's owners
  with their obligations to an eve>broadening group of stakeholders who claim both legal and
  ethical rights.
  This article will explore the nature of corporate social responsibility (CSR) with an eye toward understanding its component parts. The
  intention will be to characterize the firm's CSR in
  ways that might be useful to executives who
  wish to reconcile their obligations to their shareholders with those to
  other competing groups claiming legitimacy.
  This discussion will be framed by a pyramid of
  corporate social responsibility. Next, we plan
  to relate this concept to the idea of stakeholders. Finally, our goal
  will be to isolate the ethical or moral component of CSR and relate
  it to perspectives that reflect three major ethical approaches to managem e n t - i m m o r a l , amoral, and moral. The principal goal in this final section will be to flesh out what it means to manage stakeholders in an ethical or moral fashion.


value:
  Building Consumer Trust Online

  How merchants can win back lost consumer trust in the interests of e-commerce sales.

  Moving some Web consumers along to the purchase click is proving to be difficult, despite the impressive recent growth in online shopping. Con- sumer online shopping revenues and related corporate profits are still meager, though the industry is optimistic, thanks to bullish forecasts of cyberconsumer activity for the new millennium. In 1996, Internet shopping revenues for U.S. users, excluding cars and real estate, were estimated by Jupiter Communications, an e-commerce consulting firm in New York, at approximately $707 million but are expected to
  How merchants can win back lost consumer trust in
  the interests of e-commerce sales.
  reach nearly $37.5 billion by 2002 [1]. Meanwhile,
  the business-to-business side is taking off with more
  than $8 billion in revenues for 1997 and $327 billion
  predicted by 2002 just in the U.S., according to Forrester Research, an information consulting firm in
  Cambridge, Mass. [4]. On the consumer side, a variety of barriers are invoked to explain the continuing
  difficulties.
  There are, to be sure, numerous barriers. Such
  factors as the lack of standard technologies for secure
  payment, and the lack of profitable business models
  play important roles in the relative dearth of commercial activity by businesses and consumers on the
  Internet compared to what analysts expect in the
  near future. Granted, the commercial development
  of the Web is still in its infancy, so few expect these barriers to commercial development to persist. Still,
  commercial development of the Web faces a far
  more formidable barrier—consumers’ fear of
  divulging their personal data—to its ultimate commercialization.
  The reason more people have yet to shop online
  or even provide information to Web providers in
  exchange for access to information, is the fundamental lack of faith between most businesses and
  consumers on the Web today. In essence, consumers
  simply do not trust most Web providers enough to
  engage in “relationship exchanges” involving money
  and personal information with them.
  Our research reveals that this lack of trust arises
  from the fact that cyberconsumers feel they lack control over the access that Web merchants have to their 
  personal information during
  the online navigation
  process. These concerns over
  privacy span the dimensions
  of environmental control
  and secondary use of information control [6].
  Environmental control,
  or the consumer’s ability to
  control the actions of a Web
  vendor, directly affects consumer perception of the
  security of online shopping.
  In the physical world, a consumer may be concerned about
  giving out credit card information over the telephone to an
  unknown voice within a mail-order
  company. On the Web, consumers may
  fear typing in credit card information to any
  commercial Web provider. Similarly, a commercial
  Web provider may fear the efforts of a hacker intent on
  stealing credit card numbers.
  Control over secondary use of information
  reflects consumers’ perceived ability to control the
  use of their personal information for other purposes
  subsequent to the transaction during which the
  information is collected [2]. On the Web, this lack
  of trust is manifested in consumers’ concern that
  Web providers will sell their personal information to
  third parties without their knowledge or permission.
  Unlike traditional retail environments in the
  physical world, where consumers feel they have only
  limited choices, such perceptions concerning information privacy on the Internet have a striking negative influence on consumer willingness to engage in
  relationship exchanges online.

  Consumer Privacy Perceptions
  We investigated key consumer perceptions of privacy
  by analyzing consumer responses to two biannual surveys: the spring
  1997 Nielsen Media
  Research/CommerceNet
  Internet Demographics
  Study [10] and the 1997
  Georgia Tech Graphics,
  Visualization, and Usability Center’s GVU 7th
  WWW User Survey [11].
  The Nielsen study is
  representative of the
  U.S. as a whole, so the
  sample we examined
  (1,555 Web users) projects
  to the approximately 45 million Web users ages 16 and
  over in the U.S. at the time of
  the survey. The GVU survey is
  based on a self-selected sample of
  respondents to a Web-based form and tends to
  represent more experienced Web users from around
  the world. It is not representative or projectable to
  the larger Web user population, but the large sample
  size we analyzed (14,014 Web users) provides important insight into many Web users’ attitudes toward
  privacy. Analyzing the GVU data, we found that consumer expectations of privacy depend on the
  medium. In traditional media, it is well known that
  consumer attitudes toward privacy invasion range
  from tolerance to resigned disgust. But in electronic
  media, consumers are making it clear their need for
  control and protection is intense. A whopping 87%
  of Web users think they should have complete control over the demographic information Web sites
  capture, and over 71% feel there should be new laws
  to protect their privacy online.
  While almost 20% of Web users in the survey
  (international in scope, though most respondents
  were from the U.S.) say magazines have a right to sell
  their demographic data to other firms for direct marketing purposes, only 12% say Web sites and
  third-party agencies have the same right. Similarly,
  almost 21% of Web users like receiving direct mail
  solicitations, but only 6% of Web users want to
  receive junk email.
  The behavior of today’s commercial Web
  providers is responsible for these attitudes. Many
  cybermarketers lack faith in consumers, thinking
  that if they ask consumers to opt in, most will opt
  out. Some cybermarketers treat online consumers
  poorly, in ways that bring to mind the practices of
  unscrupulous direct marketers in the physical world.
  Our analysis revealed that the primary barriers to
  consumers’ providing demographic data to Web
  sites are related to trust and the nature of the
  exchange relationship. Nearly 63% of consumers
  who decline to provide personal information to Web
  sites report it is because they do not trust those who
  are collecting the data. Moreover, 65% report that providing such information is not worth the risk of
  revealing it, and 69% of Web users who do not provide data to Web sites say it is because the sites provide no information on how the data will be used.
  The strength of these responses is hardly surprising, considering that 86% of commercial Web sites
  provide no information of any kind on how any
  demographic data collected will be used, or even
  whether data is being collected [9]. Consumers
  respond accordingly, either by withholding their personal data or by providing false data. Almost 95% of
  Web users have declined to provide personal information to Web sites at one time or another when
  asked, and 40% who have provided demographic
  data have gone to the trouble of fabricating it.
  Despite this consumer resistance, our research
  suggests that consumers do realize that personal data
  is important to Web marketers and, perhaps surprisingly, report being interested in providing such
  information. Would it shock many marketers to
  know that almost all Web users (92%) would, in
  principle, give demographic data to Web sites? And that most consumers (over 62%) also understand
  that Web sites need information about their visitors
  to market their sites to advertisers.
  But commercial Web sites are their own worst
  enemies. Contrary to the conventional wisdom, the
  enabling conditions for giving up information are
  not product discounts, access to the site, or valueadded services. Indeed, 67%–75% of all Web users
  are decidedly uninterested in selling their personal
  data to Web sites for financial incentives or access
  privileges. In other words, consumers do not view
  their personal data in the context of an economic
  exchange of information, as many commercial Web
  providers believe.
  Instead, Web consumers report wanting another
  type of exchange—characterized by an explicit social
  contract executed in the context of a cooperative
  relationship built on trust. The enabling condition
  for providing personal data is clear: Over 72% of Web users said they would give Web sites their
  demographic information if the sites would only
  provide a statement regarding how the information
  collected would be used.
  But while consumers clamor for full disclosure
  and informed consent, the few Web sites that do tell
  their visitors they are tracking them and recording
  their data follow the traditional opt-out model. The
  default position of even the best opt-out policy is
  that unless the Web site is otherwise informed, it is
  free to use consumers’ data in any (presumably legal)
  way it sees fit. Opt-out information privacy policies
  thus place the entire information-protection burden
  on the consumer while offering none of the control
  and setting up an environment of ipso facto mistrust
  between Web provider and consumer.
  Although questionable security is a major deterrent to online shopping, concerns regarding the secondary use of information loom large, discouraging
  consumers from engaging in online relationship
  exchanges. Control over secondary use of information is likely to be a sticking point. Over 80% of Web consumers simply do not want Web sites to
  resell their personal information to other businesses.
  Consumer Attitudes and
  Cyber Behavior
  The Internet threatens consumer information privacy in new and extreme ways. Unlike the case with
  consumer behavior in the physical world (When was
  the last time a consumer refused to shop for groceries
  over privacy invasion fears?), this threat has pushed
  many consumers to opt out of various forms of commercial participation in the Internet, including providing personal information to Web sites for
  marketing purposes.
  The security issues raised by environmental control are shared by commercial Web providers and
  consumers. In contrast, the secondary use of information is a source of conflict between commercial
  Web providers and consumers. Although this conflict also exists in the physical world, the issue takes
  on greater urgency online, owing to the special characteristics of the Internet.
  Data mining and data warehousing opportunities are being exploited as never before due to the
  capabilities of the Internet, high-speed networks,
  and terabyte data storage. In contrast, consumer
  information in the physical world is stored in a
  much wider variety of databases and data formats Web consumers simply do not want Web sites to
  resell their personal information to other businesses.
  ---Consumer Attitudes and
  Cyber Behavior---
  The Internet threatens consumer information privacy in new and extreme ways. Unlike the case with
  consumer behavior in the physical world (When was
  the last time a consumer refused to shop for groceries
  over privacy invasion fears?), this threat has pushed
  many consumers to opt out of various forms of commercial participation in the Internet, including providing personal information to Web sites for
  marketing purposes.
  The security issues raised by environmental control are shared by commercial Web providers and
  consumers. In contrast, the secondary use of information is a source of conflict between commercial
  Web providers and consumers. Although this conflict also exists in the physical world, the issue takes
  on greater urgency online, owing to the special characteristics of the Internet.
  Data mining and data warehousing opportunities are being exploited as never before due to the
  capabilities of the Internet, high-speed networks,
  and terabyte data storage. In contrast, consumer
  information in the physical world is stored in a
  much wider variety of databases and data formats 
  Despite the growing consumer awareness of the
  potential for such customization, the practice generally proceeds without explicit consumer permission
  or knowledge.
  It should come as no surprise that most consumers therefore avoid engaging in relationship
  exchanges online. In 1997, although more than 45
  million individuals age 16 and over had used the
  Web in the U.S. at least once, only 4.5 million, or
  10%, had ever purchased a product or service on the
  Web [8]. It is also worth noting, for the sake of perspective, that almost 123 million people, or nearly
  62% of the U.S. population in 1997, had no access
  to the Internet and had never used it, and another
  32 million Americans had access but had yet to use
  the Internet even once.
  Figure 1 shows that Web consumers’ top onlineshopping concerns are related to control over information privacy and to trust, as opposed to the
  operating risks of remote shopping, and that these
  concerns influence their stated likelihood of buying
  something. In light of increasing security concerns,
  the likelihood of buying online decreases.
  The same is true for secondary use of information
  control and trust, except that these concerns are
  most pronounced for both those Web users most
  likely and those least likely to shop online.
  Figure 2 shows the relationship between the
  degree of online experience (closely correlated with
  and described by us here as “skill”) and the reasons
  for not shopping online. We considered only Web
  users who have never shopped online and never plan
  to. Overall, the most important reasons nonbuyers
  uninterested in online shopping give for not shopping online are not functional but are related to
  issues of control over their personal information.
  It is dramatically apparent that negative perceptions regarding security and privacy increase along
  with levels of online proficiency. The reverse is true
  for the functional reasons Web users do not shop
  online, including no perceived need, no interest, no
  knowledge of how to shop online, and the belief that
  it is faster to shop in stores made of bricks and mortar. In essence, the more experience one acquires
  online, the less important are the functional barriers
  to online shopping and the more important are concerns of control over personal information.

  ----Commercial Development of
  the Web (Short- vs. Long-Term)----
  Each stage of the online purchasing process involves
  dissimilar and conflicting interests for consumers
  and commercial Web providers [3]. During the
  search stage, for example, the Web provider wants to glean consumer information—the better to build a
  database of customer navigation and eventual purchase profiles. And the consumer wants to minimize
  the amount of personal information disclosed while
  maximizing the amount of information obtained
  about the product.
  In the near term, this conflict of interest cannot
  be easily resolved, but we can address it by giving
  consumers the opportunity to be anonymous or
  pseudonymous when engaging in information
  exchanges and online transactions. Traceable
  anonymity gives Web providers no clues about consumers’ identities but leaves this information in the
  hands of a third party. Traceable pseudonymity
  attaches a nom de plume, or pseudo-identity, that
  can be traced back to the consumer by someone,
  not necessarily the Web provider [5]. These functions can be ensured through the use of pseudonymous and third parties acting as mediators. At the
  same time, consumer anonymity or pseudonymity
  has to allow Web providers to receive the minimum
  information necessary—but only the minimum—
  to complete the exchange; for example, authentication, certification, confirmation, payment,
  and nonrepudiation in the case of an online
  transaction.
  This short-term solution is appealing because it is
  likely to stimulate consumers’ commercial online
  transactions by preserving their information privacy.
  It has the added attraction of opening the door to a
  long-term solution.
  Ultimately, the most effective way for commercial Web providers to develop profitable exchange
  relationships with online customers is to earn
  their trust. The way to achieve trust is simple,
  though it departs radically from traditional business practice and will be difficult for many companies to implement. Trust is best achieved by
  allowing the balance of power to shift toward a
  more cooperative interaction between an online
  business and its customers [7].
  Recognizing consumers’ rights to data ownership
  on the Internet is an important first step in this rebalancing process. At a minimum, it means marketdriven industry acceptance and enforcement of
  opt-out policies regarding information exchange.
  Eventually, the industry should accede to consumer
  demand and move toward opt-in, informed-consent
  policies in computer-mediated environments. However, it is likely that U.S. federal regulatory effort will
  be required.
  A more consumer-oriented information privacy
  model will lead to commercially valuable relationship exchanges with important benefits for consumers and companies doing business on the Internet [12]. Consumers will be in control of their personal information—a notion consistent with
  customization of customer needs in online environments. Companies will be rewarded with consumer
  trust, willingness to disclose personal information,
  and increased loyalty. Moreover, as with open standards in computing and networking technology,
  cooperative models promote the healthy development of the electronic marketplace.
  References
  1. Achs, N. 1998 Online Shopping Report: Strategies for Driving Consumer
  Transactions. Jupiter Communications, Digital Commerce Group,
  New York, 1997 (www.jup.com).
  2. Culman, M. Consumer awareness of name removal procedures: Implications for direct marketing. J. Dir. Mark. 9, 2 (Spring 1995), 10-19.
  3. Driscoll, M., Roberts, C., Lyons, E., Jain, G., and Nuckols, J. Secure
  Online Payment Systems. Owen Electronic Commerce Student Working
  Paper, 1997 (mba.vanderbilt.edu/student/mba98/ jeffrey.nuckols/
  secure_online_payment/secure_payments_frames.html).
  4. Erwin, B., Modahl, M., and Johnson, J. Sizing intercompany commerce: Business trade and technology strategies. The Forrester Report 1,
  1 (July 1997) (www.forrester.com).
  5. Froomkin, M. Flood control on the information ocean: Living with
  anonymity, digital cash, and distributed databases. Univ. Pittsburgh J.
  Law and Commer. 395, 15 (1996) (www.law.miami.edu/~froomkin/
  articles/ocean.htm).
  6. Goodwin, C. Privacy: Recognition of a consumer right. J. Public Policy
  Mark. 10, 1 (spring 1991), 106–119.
  7. Hoffman, D., and Novak, T. A new marketing paradigm for electronic
  commerce. Inf. Soc.: An Int. J. 13, 1 (1997), 43–54.
  8. Hoffman, D., and Novak, T. Privacy and electronic commerce. Handout
  prepared for Electronic Frontier Foundation/Silicon Valley Industry
  Briefing with Ira Magaziner on Global Electronic Commerce and Personal Privacy Protection (Aug. 5, 1997).
  9. Landesberg, M., Levin, T., Curtin, C., and Lev, O. Privacy Online: A
  Report to Congress. Federal Trade Commission, June 1998
  (www.ftc.gov).
  10. Nielsen Media Research. Nielsen Media Research/CommerceNet Internet
  Demographics Study. Spring, 1997 (www.nielsenmedia.com/commercenet/).
  11. Pitkow, J., and Kehoe, C. 7th WWW User Survey. Georgia Tech
  Research Corp., June 1997 (www.gvu.gatech. edu/user_surveys/).
  12. Wang, H., Lee, M., and Wang, C. Consumer privacy concerns about
  Internet marketing. Commun. ACM 41, 3 (Mar. 1998), 63–70.


value:
  We propose a new theoretical framework for understanding simultaneous trust and
  distrust within relationships, grounded in assumptions of multidimensionality and
  the inherent tensions of relationships, and we separate this research from prior work
  grounded in assumptions of unidimensionality and balance. Drawing foundational
  support for this new framework from recent research on simultaneous positive and
  negative sentiments and ambivalence, we explore the theoretical and practical significance of the framework for future work on trust and distrust relationships within
  organizations.


value:
  Models of Interpersonal Trust Development: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Evidence, and Future Directions


value:
  Most research on trust has taken a static, “snapshot” view; that is, it has approached trust as an independent, mediating, or dependent variable captured by measuring trust at a single point in time. Limited attention has been given to conceptualizing and measuring trust development over time within interpersonal relationships. The authors organize the existing work on trust development into four broad areas: the behavioral approach and three specific conceptualizations of the psychological approach (unidimensional, two-dimensional, and transformational models). They compare and contrast across these approaches and use this analysis to identify unanswered questions and formulate directions for future research.


value:
  Past commentaries on the potential impact of the Internet
  on consumer marketing have typically failed to acknowledge that consumer markets are heterogeneous and complex and that the lnternet is but one possible distribution,
  transaction, and communication channel in a world dominated by conventional retailing channels. Thisfailure has
  led to excessively broadpredictions regarding the effect of
  the lnternet on the structure and performance of product
  and service markets. The objective of this article is to
  provide a framework for understanding possible impacts
  of the lnternet on marketing to consumers. This is done by
  analyzing channel intermediary functions that can beperformed on the Internet, suggesting classification schemes
  that clarify the potential impact of the Internet across
  different products and services, positioning the Internet
  against conventional retailing channels, and identifying
  similarities and differences that exist between them. The
  article concludes with a series of questions designed to
  stimulate the development of theory and strategy in the
  context of lnternet-based marketing.


value:
  The relationships among nationality, cultural values, personal information privacy concerns, and information privacy regulation are examined in this article.


value:
  "How Did They Get My Name?": An Exploratory Investigation of Consumer Attitudes toward Secondary Information Use


value:
  Strategic uses of information technology based on personal information may raise privacy concerns among consumers if these applications do not reflect a common set of values. This study addresses what differentiates consumers who object to certain uses of personal information from those who do not object. Data collected by questionnairefromyoung consumers are used to identify a research approach for investigating attitudes toward the secondary use of personal information for direct marketing. Secondary information use occurs when personal information collected for one purpose is subsequently used fora differentpurpose. Whilesecondary information use is both widespread and legal, it may be viewed as an invasion of privacy when it occurs without the knowledge or consent of the consumer. The setting for the study is the use of point-of-sale data from a supermarket frequent shopper program to generate direct mail solicitations.


value:
  Understanding privacy concerns An assessment of consumers information related knowledge and beliefs nowak phelps1992.pdf


value:
  Understanding privacy concerns: An assessment of consumers’ information-related knowledge and beliefs


value:
  The need to maximize advertrsing effectivenessand minimize communication costs has increased direct marketers’ and packaged-goodsadvertisers’ reliance on individual-level consumer information. The use of such information, however, has raised a number of questions regarding consumer privacy. This study therefore attempts to increase direct marketers’ understanding of privacy issues by examining h o w well informed consumers are with respect to information gathering and use practices. The results of a regional survey of 266 adults 18 years old and older suggested: 1I privacy is an important concern; 2) many people are not very knowledgeable about specific direct marketing practices; 3) consumer concern is affected by type of practice and specificity of information; and 4) most favor restrictions on the gathering and use of personal information. Overall, the results suggest consumer ignorance may be a significant contributor to privacy concerns and that a strong committment to consumer education may be necessary to avoid government regulation and legislation.


value:
  Direct marketing and the use of individual-level consumer information: Determining how and when ?privacy? matters


value:
  The desire to maximize marketing effectiveness and reduce communication costs has increased direct marketers’ reliance on computerized databases, customized persuasion, and other consumer information intensive strategies and tactics (28,541. The belief that the success of marketing efforts is positively related to the amount and specificity of individual-level consumer information (7). however, has raised questions about how far companies should be allowed to go in learning about or attempting to persuade consumers (6.40). In the process, privacy has become widely evoked, but often elusive concept. This article develops a framework for addressing privacy concerns that arise when direct marketers utilize consumer information. It does so by identifying the underlying dimensions of the privacy construct and examining the relationships between those dimensions and direct marketers’ consumer information practices. This approach not only helps identify situations when privacy matters. but suggests productive strategies and tactics for alleviating consumer concerns related to the use of individual-level consumer information.


value:
  OpenAlex is a new, fully-open scientific knowledge graph (SKG), launched to replace the discontinued Microsoft Academic Graph (MAG). It contains metadata for 209M works (journal articles, books, etc); 2013M disambiguated authors; 124k venues (places that host works, such as journals and online repositories); 109k institutions; and 65k Wikidata concepts (linked to works via an automated hierarchical multi-tag classifier). The dataset is fully and freely available via a web-based GUI, a full data dump, and high-volume REST API. The resource is under active development and future work will improve accuracy and coverage of citation information and author/institution parsing and deduplication.


value:
  In this paper, we integrate insights from diverse islands of research on electronic privacy to offer a holistic view of privacy engineering and a systematic structure for the discipline’s topics. First, we discuss privacy requirements grounded in both historic and contemporary perspectives on privacy. We use a three-layer model of user privacy concerns to relate them to system operations (data transfer, storage, and processing) and examine their effects on user behavior. In the second part of this paper, we develop guidelines for building privacy-friendly systems. We distinguish two approaches: “privacy-by-policy” and “privacy-by-architecture.” The privacy-bypolicy approach focuses on the implementation of the notice and choice principles of fair information practices, while the privacy-byarchitecture approach minimizes the collection of identifiable personal data and emphasizes anonymization and client-side data storage and processing. We discuss both approaches with a view to their technical overlaps and boundaries as well as to economic feasibility. This paper aims to introduce engineers and computer scientists to the privacy research domain and provide concrete guidance on how to design privacy-friendly systems.


value:
  The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we summarize research on the topic of privacy in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI), outlining current approaches, results, and trends. Practitioners and researchers can draw upon this review when working on topics related to privacy in the context of HCI and CSCW. The second purpose is that of charting future research trends and of pointing out areas of research that are timely but lagging. This work is based on a comprehensive analysis of published academic and industrial literature spanning three decades, and on the experience of both ourselves and of many of our colleagues.


value:
  In this Article, Professor Solove develops a new approach for conceptualizing privacy. He begins by examining the existing discourse about conceptualizing privacy, exploring the conceptions of a wide array of jurists, legal scholars, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists. Solove contends that the theories are either too narrow or too broad. With afew exceptions,the discourse seeks to conceptualiz eprivacy by isolating one or more common "essential" or "core" characteristics of privacy. Expounding upon Ludwig Wittgenstein's notion of 'family resemblances," Solove contends that privacy is better understood as drawing from a
  common pool of similar characteristics. Rather than search for an overarching concept, Solove advances a pragmatic approach to conceptualizing privacy. According to Solove, when we talk about privacy,  we are really talking about related dimensions of particular practices. We
  should explore what it means for something to be private contextually by  looking at privacy problems: instances of particular forms of disruption to particular practices. Solove demonstrates how practices involving privacy have changed throughout history and explains the appropriate way to assess the value of privacy.


value:
  "It may be a pain in the backside but..." Insights into the impact of GDPR on business after three years


value:
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into effect in May 2018 and is designed to safeguard EU citizens’ data privacy. The beneﬁts of the regulation to consumers’ rights and to regulators’ powers are well known. The beneﬁts to regulated businesses are less obvious and under-researched. The aim of this study is to investigate if GDPR is all pain and no gain for business. Using semi-structured interviews, we survey 14 C-level executives responsible for business, ﬁnance, marketing, legal and technology drawn from six small, medium and large companies in the UK and Ireland.


value:
  Although marketers increasingly rely on customer data, firms have little insight into the ramifications of these uses or how to prevent negative effects. Data management efforts may heighten customers’ vulnerability worries or create real vulnerability. Using a conceptual framework grounded in gossip theory, this research links customer vulnerability to negative performance effects. Three studies show transparency and control in firms’ data management practices can suppress the negative effects of customer data vulnerability. Experimental manipulations reveal that mere access to personal data inflates feelings of violation and reduces trust. An event study of data security breaches affecting 414 public companies also confirms negative effects, as well as spillover vulnerabilities from rival firms’ breaches, on firm performance. Severity of the breach hurts the focal firm but helps the rival firm, which provides some insight into mixed findings in prior research. Finally, a field study with actual customers of 15 companies across three industries demonstrates consistent effects across four types of customer data vulnerability and confirms that violation and trust mediate the effects of data vulnerabilities on outcomes.


value:
  Digitization makes it easier for ﬁrms to build their innovation and marketing eﬀorts around consumers’ personal data. In this research, we employ a privacy perspective based on contextual integrity to examine how such practices can trigger privacy concerns. We propose that small entrepreneurial ﬁrms are often at a particular disadvantage compared to large incumbent ﬁrms. At the same time, we also highlight that there are several strategies ﬁrms can use to mitigate privacy concerns and that in some circumstances, privacy concerns may also exert positive eﬀects on data-driven marketing by stimulating privacy innovation and providing a source of competitive advantage.


value:
  The effect of a data breach annoncement on customer behaviour evidence from a multichannel retailer Janakiraman Lim 2017.pdf


value:
  The Effect of a Data Breach Announcement on Customer Behavior: Evidence from a Multichannel Retailer


value:
  In this study, the authors assess the effects of a data breach announcement (DBA) by a multichannel retailer on customer behavior. They exploit a natural experiment and use individual customer transaction data from the retailer to conduct a detailed and systematic empirical examination of the effects of a DBA on customer spending and channel migration behavior. To identify the effects, the authors compare the change in customer behavior before and after the DBA between a treatment group (customers whose information is breached) and a control group (customers whose information is not breached) using the difference-in-differences modeling framework. They find that although the data breach results in a significant decrease in customer spending, customers of the firm migrate from the breached to the unbreached channels of the retailer. The findings further reflect that customers with a higher retailer patronage are more forgiving because the negative effects of the DBA are lower for customers with a higher level of patronage. The authors propose and empirically test for the role of customer data vulnerability as the behavioral mechanism that drives customer behavior subsequent to a DBA. The authors offer prescriptions for managers on how to engage with customers following DBAs.


value:
  Proceedings of the twenty-second ACM SIGMOD-SIGACT-SIGART symposium on Principles of database systems


value:
  SIGMOD/PODS03: International Conference on Management of Data and Symposium on Principles Database and Systems


value:
  There has been increasing interest in the problem of building accurate data mining models over aggregate data, while protecting privacy at the level of individual records. One approach for this problem is to randomize the values in individual records, and only disclose the randomized values. The model is then built over the randomized data, after ﬁrst compensating for the randomization (at the aggregate level). This approach is potentially vulnerable to privacy breaches: based on the distribution of the data, one may be able to learn with high conﬁdence that some of the randomized records satisfy a speciﬁed property, even though privacy is preserved on average.


value:
  While the literature on information security economics has begun to investigate the stock market impact of security breaches and vulnerability announcements, little more than anecdotal evidence exists on the effects of privacy breaches. In this paper we present the first comprehensive analysis of the impact of a company’s privacy incidents on its market value. We compile a broad data set of instances of exposure of personal information due to failures of some security mechanism (hacking, stolen or lost equipment, poor data handling processes, and others) and we present the results of various empirical analyses, including event study analysis. We show that there exists a negative and statistically significant impact of data breaches on a company’s market value on the announcement day for the breach. The cumulative effect increases in magnitudes over the day following the breach announcement, but then decreases and loses statistical significance. We also present regression analyses that aim at disentangling the effects of a number of factors on abnormal stock returns due to reported breaches. Finally, we comment on the differences between the impact of the security breaches already described in the literature, and the privacy breaches described here.


value:
  "Jeremy Bentham's writings on Australian governance and colonization...Jeremy Bentham conceived the panopticon, in part, as an alternative to criminal transportation to Australia. This latest volume in The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham series draws out these connections by collecting both Bentham's fragmentary and extended comments on Australian governance and colonization. These writings include a fragment headed “New Wales” (1792) correspondence with William Wilberforce (1802), three letters to Lord Pelham (1802), a “Plea for the Constitution” (1802–3), and “Colonization Company Proposal” (1831)—the majority published here for the first time. Although Bentham's most famous ideas emerged from his opposition to colonization, these writings demonstrate how the reformer became a vocal advocate for settler colonization near the end of his life."


value:
  Scholars in various disciplines have considered the causes, nature, and effects of trust. Prior approaches to studying trust are considered, including characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the role of risk. A definition of trust and a model of its antecedents and outcomes are presented, which integrate research from multiple disciplines and differentiate trust from similar constructs. Several research proposi-tions based on the model are presented.


value:
  Patient health data is heavily regulated and sensitive. Patients will lie sometimes about their data to avoid embarrassment resultingin misdiagnoses and even death. Existing research to explain this phenomenon is scarce with little more than attitudes and intents modeled. Similarly, health data disclosure research has only applied existing theories with additional constructs for the healthcare context. We argue that health data has a fundamentally different cost/benefit calculus than thenon-health contextsfrom traditional privacy research. By separating the probability of disclosure risks and benefits from the impact of that disclosure, it is easier to understand and interpret health data disclosure. In a study of 1590 patients disclosing health information electronically, we find that the benefits of disclosure are more difficult to conceptualize than the impact of the risk. We validate this using both a stated and objective (mouse tracking) measure of patient lying.


value:
  https://docs.google.com/document/d/1OgXSLriHO3Ekz0OYoaoP_h0sPcuvV4EqX7VgLLblKe4/edit#heading=h.mwc8rq67dbn1


value:
  Alceste une méthodologie d'analyse des données textuelles et une application: Aurelia De Gerard De Nerval


value:
  ALCESTE - A Methodology of Textual Data Analysis and an Application: Aurélia by Gérard de Nerval. Beginning with a cross-tabulation with different all sentence fragments in rows and a selected vocabulary in columns for a specific corpus, the author presents: the methodology, including principle concepts and objectives of this form of analysis; the technique, the ALCESTE computer program of automatic classification based on resemblance or dissimilarity: and an application, the analysis of Gérard de Nerval's text Aurélia. The analysis distinguishes three types of fragments which are described and analyzed further.


value:
  Blockchain is considered by many to be a disruptive core technology. Although many researchers have realized the importance of blockchain, the research of blockchain is still in its infancy. Consequently, this study reviews the current academic research on blockchain, especially in the subject area of business and economics. Based on a systematic review of the literature retrieved from the Web of Science service, we explore the top-cited articles, most productive countries, and most common keywords. Additionally, we conduct a clustering analysis and identify the following five research themes: “economic benefit,” “blockchain technology,” “initial coin offerings,” “fintech revolution,” and “sharing economy.” Recommendations on future research directions and practical applications are also provided in this paper.


value:
  "Shoshana Zuboff, named "the true prophet of the information age" by the Financial Times, has always been ahead of her time. Her seminal book In the Age of the Smart Machine foresaw the consequences of a then-unfolding era of computer technology. Now, three decades later she asks why the once-celebrated miracle of digital is turning into a nightmare. Zuboff tackles the social, political, business, personal, and technological meaning of "surveillance capitalism" as an unprecedented new market form. It is not simply about tracking us and selling ads, it is the business model for an ominous new marketplace that aims at nothing less than predicting and modifying our everyday behavior--where we go, what we do, what we say, how we feel, who we're with. The consequences of surveillance capitalism for us as individuals and as a society vividly come to life in The Age of Surveillance Capitalism's pathbreaking analysis of power. The threat has shifted from a totalitarian "big brother" state to a universal global architecture of automatic sensors and smart capabilities: A "big other" that imposes a fundamentally new form of power and unprecedented concentrations of knowledge in private companies--free from democratic oversight and control"--


value:
  12 juillet 2000-12 juillet 2002 Petite histoire de la Directive européenne sur la vie privée et les communications électronique ou le revirement de l’Europe


value:
  Directive 2002/58/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 12 juillet 2002 concernant le traitement des données à caractère personnel et la protection de la vie privée dans le secteur des communications électroniques (directive vie privée et communications électroniques)


value:
  https://archive.org/details/FinancialTimes1996UKEnglish/Feb%2012%201996%2C%20Financial%20Times%2C%20%2312%2C%20UK%20%28en%29/page/n29/mode/2up


value:
  The large-scale automated transaction systems of the near future can be designed to protect the privacy and maintain the security of both individuals and organizations.


value:
  Although writing more than a century ago, Franz Kafka captured the core problem of digital technologies – how individuals are rendered powerless and vulnerable. During the past fifty years, and especially in the 21st century, privacy laws have been sprouting up around the world. These laws are often based heavily on an Individual Control Model that aims to empower individuals with rights to help them control the collection, use, and disclosure of their data.


value:
  AI incidents, often resulting from the complex interplay of algorithms, human agents, and situations, violate norms and can cause minor or catastrophic errors. This study systematically examines these incidents by developing a typology of AI failure and linking these modes to AI task types. Using a computationally intensive grounded theory approach, we analyzed 466 unique reported real-world AI incidents from 2013 to 2023. Our findings reveal an AI failure typology with six modes, including artifact malfunction, artifact misuse, algorithmic bias, agency oversight, situational unresponsiveness, and value misalignment. Furthermore, we explore the relationship between these failure modes and the tasks performed by AI, uncovering four propositions that provide a framework for future research. Our study contributes to the literature by offering a more holistic perspective on the challenges faced by AI-powered systems, beyond the critical challenges of fairness, transparency, and responsibility noted by the literature.


value:
  Individuals increasingly seek algorithmic advice to optimize their decision making. This study aims to investigate the effects of receiving algorithmic advice on individuals’ attribution of responsibility for their achievements. The study is based on an experiment with a 2 x 5 design of two dimensions: achievement (success vs. failure) and advice (no advice; human-based advice with high and low expertise; and algorithmic advice with high and low accuracy). The findings from a pilot study suggest that the experimental design is largely appropriate, given that we found answers to our hypotheses. This short paper provides valuable insights for future research on the attribution of responsibility for success and failure when receiving algorithmic advice.


value:
  The Impact of ChatGPT on the Demand for Human Content Generating and Editing Services: Evidence from an Online Labor Market


value:
  The rise of generative AI has been a subject of debate among researchers and practitioners regarding its effect on the labor market. While some argue that it may displace jobs, others suggest it could create new opportunities and improve productivity. This study examines the impact of the ChatGPT launch on 18,130 services with 199,430 observations using a differencein-differences approach and data from the online labor marketplace Fiverr. The findings suggest that ChatGPT had a negative effect on the demand for human content generating and editing services, with a concentration on writing services. However, there was no significant effect on the demand for editing services. The study also found that the demand for services with higher prices was more negatively affected. These results contribute to the ongoing debate on the impact of generative AI on the labor market and offer practical recommendations for service providers to navigate this new AI-driven landscape.


value:
  Algorithms increasingly take on tasks traditionally performed by humans. They not only serve as co-workers to their human counterparts but increasingly take over management tasks by supervising and coordinating human workers – a phenomenon referred to as Algorithmic Management (AM). There is a growing research interest in this topic, but currently, the field lacks an overview and thorough understanding of what types of managerial work algorithms already perform. We address this with a structured literature review. We find that the automation of management work and workers’ responses to it (so-called algoactivism) have received the most attention. However, the configuration of AM systems has so far received little systematic attention. We further analyze which management functions algorithms perform. We find that while algorithms primarily supervise and investigate workers, coordinating interdependent workers and tasks has not been addressed. We propose several avenues for future research.


value:
  In order to create a well-functioning internal market for Artificial Intelligence (AI)systems, the European Commission recently proposed the Artificial Intelligence Act. However, this legislative proposal pays limited attention to the health-specific risks the use of AI poses to patients’ rights. This article outlines that fundamental rights impacts associated with AI such as discrimination, diminished privacy and opaque decision-making are exacerbated in the context of health and may threaten the protection of foundational values and core patients’ rights. However, while the EU is facilitating and promoting the use and availability of AI in the health sector in Europe via the Digital Single Market, it is unclear whether it can provide the concomitant patients’ rights protection. This article theorises the Europeanisation of health AI by exploring legal challenges through a patients’ rights lens in order to determine if the European regulatory approach for AI provides for sufficient protection to patients’ rights.


value:
  Artificial intelligence (AI) and its broad applications are disruptively transforming the daily lives of human beings and a discussion of the ethical and privacy issues surrounding AI is a topic of growing interest, not only among academics but also the general public. This review identifies the key entities (i.e., leading research institutions and their affiliated countries/regions, core research journals, and communities) that contribute to the research on the ethical and privacy issues in relation to AI and their intersections using co-occurrence analysis. Topic analyses profile the topical landscape of AI ethics using a topical hierarchical tree and the changing interest of society in AI ethics over time through scientific evolutionary pathways. We also paired 15 selected AI techniques with 17 major ethical issues and identify emerging ethical issues from a core set of the most recent articles published in Nature, Science, and Proceedings of the National Science Academy of the United States. These insights, bridging the knowledge base of AI techniques and ethical issues in the literature, are of interest to the AI community and audiences in science policy, technology management, and public administration.


value:
  Internet-delivered e-services are increasingly being made available to consumers; however, little is known about how they are evaluated for potential adoption. Past research has focused primarily on the positive utility gains attributable to information technology adoption. This research extends that research approach to include measures of potential negative utility (losses) attributable to e-service adoption. Drawing from Perceived Risk Theory, specific risk facets were operationalized, integrated, and empirically tested within the Technology Acceptance Model to propose an e-services adoption model. Results indicate that e-services adoption is adversely affected primarily by performance-based risk perceptions, while perceived ease of use of the eservice reduces risk perceptions. The paper discusses the implications of integrating risk into the proposed eservices adoption model.


value:
  The Information Systems (IS) research community has been interested in Artificial Intelligence (AI) for many years. The European Commission proposed the European Artificial Intelligence Act (AIA) in April 2021 with the goal of providing a harmonized regulatory framework for the development and deployment of AI technology. The AIA is a unique initiative which holds great significance for IS research and practice. Although the Act has gained significant attention, research has highlighted various challenges and critiques. This systematic literature review categorizes and summarizes existing AIA research to identify these issues, which primarily pertain to the regulation's formulation, compliance, enforcement, and anticipated impacts on industry and civil society. We suggest future IS research directions, focusing on compliance with regulation, formulation of legal regulation, and longitudinal research covering multiple policy cycle stages.


value:
  Opinion Paper: “So what if ChatGPT wrote it?” Multidisciplinary perspectives on opportunities, challenges and implications of generative conversational AI for research, practice and policy


value:
  This research addresses the tensions that arise between the collection and use of personal information that people provide in the course of most consumer transactions, and privacy. In today's electronic world, the competitive strategies of successful firms increasingly depend on vast amounts of customer data. Ironically, the same information practices that provide value to organizations also raise privacy concerns for individuals. This study hypothesized that organizations can address these privacy concerns and gain business advantage through customer retention by observing procedural fairness: customers will be willing to disclose personal information and have that information subsequently used to create consumer profiles for business use when there are fair procedures in place to protect individual privacy. Because customer relationships are characterized by social distance, customers must depend on strangers to act on their behalf. Procedural fairness serves as an intermediary to build trust when interchangeable organizational agents exercise considerable delegated power on behalf of customers who cannot specify or constrain their behavior. Our hypothesis was supported as we found that when customers are explicitly told that fair information practices are employed, privacy concerns do not distinguish consumers who are willing to be profiled from those who are unwilling to have their personal information used in this way.


value:
  Abstract
              While rich medical, behavioral, and socio-demographic data are key to modern data-driven research, their collection and use raise legitimate privacy concerns. Anonymizing datasets through de-identification and sampling before sharing them has been the main tool used to address those concerns. We here propose a generative copula-based method that can accurately estimate the likelihood of a specific person to be correctly re-identified, even in a heavily incomplete dataset. On 210 populations, our method obtains AUC scores for predicting individual uniqueness ranging from 0.84 to 0.97, with low false-discovery rate. Using our model, we find that 99.98% of Americans would be correctly re-identified in any dataset using 15 demographic attributes. Our results suggest that even heavily sampled anonymized datasets are unlikely to satisfy the modern standards for anonymization set forth by GDPR and seriously challenge the technical and legal adequacy of the de-identification release-and-forget model.


value:
  https://next.ink/brief_article/les-agences-despionnage-americaines-se-fournissent-aussi-aupres-des-data-brokers/


value:
  Background 9 Risks to National Security 14
  Methodology 16 Phase 1 Results: Scraping Data Broker Websites 21 Phase 2 Results: Buying Servicemembers’ Data via U.S. Domain 25 Phase 3 Results: Buying Servicemembers’ Data via .asia Domain 32 Phase 4 Results: Analysis of Purchased Data 37
  Conclusion and Policy Recommendations


value:
  Office of the Director National Intelligence Senior Advisory Group - Panel on Commercially Available Information -


value:
  Do Cookie Banners Respect my Choice? : Measuring Legal Compliance of Banners from IAB Europe’s Transparency and Consent Framework


value:
  As a result of the GDPR and the ePrivacy Directive, European users encounter cookie banners on almost every website. Many of such banners are implemented by Consent Management Providers (CMPs), who respect IAB Europe’s Transparency and Consent Framework (TCF). Via cookie banners, CMPs collect and disseminate user consent to third parties. In this work, we systematically study IAB Europe’s TCF and analyze consent stored behind the user interface of TCF cookie banners. We analyze the GDPR and the ePrivacy Directive to identify potential legal violations in implementations of cookie banners based on the storage of consent and detect such suspected violations by crawling 1 426 websites that contains TCF banners, found among 28 257 crawled European websites. With two automatic and semi-automatic crawl campaigns, we detect suspected violations, and we ﬁnd that: 141 websites register positive consent even if the user has not made their choice; 236 websites nudge the users towards accepting consent by pre-selecting options; and 27 websites store a positive consent even if the user has explicitly opted out. Performing extensive tests on 560 websites, we ﬁnd at least one suspected violation in 54% of them. Finally, we provide a browser extension to facilitate manual detection of suspected violations for regular users and Data Protection Authorities.


value:
  https://dro.deakin.edu.au/articles/journal_contribution/Contact-tracing_apps_and_alienation_in_the_age_of_COVID-19/20689066/1/files/36903520.pdf


value:
  The regulatory approach to privacy protection taken by many foreign jurisdiction s is markedly different from that of the United States. The European Union (EU) best illustrate s the internationa l approach with its comprehensive privacy directive that applies to all EU members. By contrast, the approach regarding data privacy in the United States has been to pass industry-speci c laws and often only in response to public outcry over some privacy concern. These fundamental differences have been the source of some con ict in internationa l commercial transacting. Now that the global community is committed to eliminating terrorism, it remains to be seen if these different attitudes toward privacy by the United States and much of the rest of the world will affect global attempts to weed out terrorists. This article discusses the constitutiona l basis for most US policy approaches to privacy regulation. The article explains how the US constitution is the source for most of the differences between the US and internationa l regulatory approaches to information privacy. Finally, the discussion addresses how new issues regarding privacy in the war on terrorism may be addressed by US Constitutiona l law.


value:
  Evidence suggests that consumers often hesitate to transact with Web-based vendors because of uncertainty about vendor behavior or the perceived risk of having personal information stolen by hackers. Trust plays a central role in helping consumers overcome perceptions of risk and insecurity. Trust makes consumers comfortable sharing personal information, making purchases, and acting on Web vendor advice—behaviors essential to widespread adoption of e-commerce. Therefore, trust is critical to both researchers and practitioners. Prior research on e-commerce trust has used diverse, incomplete, and inconsistent definitions of trust, making it difficult to compare results across studies. This paper contributes by proposing and validating measures for a multidisciplinary, multidimensional model of trust in e-commerce. The model includes four high-level constructs—disposition to trust, institution-based trust, trusting beliefs, and trusting intentions—which are further delineated into 16 measurable, literature-grounded subconstructs. The psychometric properties of the measures are demonstrated through use of a hypothetical, legal advice Web site. The results show that trust is indeed a multidimensional concept. Proposed relationships among the trust constructs are tested (for internal nomological validity), as are relationships between the trust constructs and three other e-commerce constructs (for external nomological validity), as Web experience, personal innovativeness, and Web site quality. Suggestions for future research as well as implications for practice are discussed.


value:
  Introduction: Digital preservation underpins the persistence of scholarly links and citations through the digital object identifier (DOI) system. We do not currently know, at scale, the extent to which articles assigned a DOI are adequately preserved.
  Methods: We construct a database of preservation information from original archival sources and then examine the preservation statuses of 7,438,037 DOIs in a random sample.
  Results: Of the 7,438,037 works examined, there were 5.9 million copies spread over the archives used in this work. Furthermore, a total of 4,342,368 of the works that we studied (58.38%) were present in at least one archive. However, this left 2,056,492 works in our sample (27.64%) that are seemingly unpreserved. The remaining 13.98% of works in the sample were excluded either for being too recent (published in the current year), not being journal articles, or having insufficient date metadata for us to identify the source. Discussion: Our study is limited by design in several ways. Among these are the facts that it uses only a subset of archives, it only tracks articles with DOIs, and it does not account for institutional repository coverage. Nonetheless, as an initial attempt to gauge the landscape, our results will still be of interest to libraries, publishers, and researchers.
  Conclusion: This work reveals an alarming preservation deficit. Only 0.96% of Crossref members (n = 204) can be confirmed to digitally preserve over 75% of their content in three or more of the archives that we studied. (Note that when, in this article, we write “preserved,” we mean “that we were able to confirm as preserved,” as per the specified limitations of this study.) A slightly larger proportion, i.e., 8.5% (n = 1,797), preserved over 50% of their content in two or more archives. However, many members, i.e., 57.7% (n = 12,257), only met the threshold of having 25% of their material in a single archive. Most worryingly, 32.9% (n = 6,982) of Crossref members seem not to have any adequate digital preservation in place, which is against the recommendations of the Digital Preservation Coalition.


value:
  Information privacy measuring indiviuals concerns about organizational practices smith milberg burke 1996.docx


value:
  Information privacy concerns procedural fairness and impersonal trust an empirical investigation culnan armstrong 1999.docx


value:
  Privacy Concerns and Consumer Willingness to Provide personal information phelps Nowak Ferrell 2000.docx


value:
  Privacy in the Digital Age A Review of Information Privacy Research in Information systems 2011 Belanger.docx


value:
  Privacy as a concept and a social issue A multidimensional developmental theory Laufer Wolfe 1977.docx


value:
  Privacy regulation Culturally universal or culturally specific altman1977 Journal of social issues ENG.docx


value:
  Department of Communication Studies, IU School of Liberal Arts, IU School of Medicine, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis, and Charles Warren Fairbanks Center for Medical Ethics, Clarian Health Partners (petronio@iupui.edu).


value:
  Communication Boundary Management: A Theoretical Model of Managing Disclosure of Private Information Between Marital Couples


value:
  Impelled by the development of technologies that facilitate collection, distribution, storage, and manipulation of personal consumer information, privacy has become a “hot” topic for policy makers. Commercial interests seek to maximize and then leverage the value of consumer information, while, at the same time, consumers voice concerns that their rights and ability to control their personal information in the marketplace are being violated. However, despite the complaints, it appears that consumers freely provide personal data. This research explores what we call the “privacy paradox” or the relationship between individuals’ intentions to disclose personal information and their actual personal information disclosure behaviors.


value:
  https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/155037-conseil-des-ministres-10031993-revision-de-la-constitution


value:
  Redecouvrir la constitution rapport du comite preside par simone veilCOMITÉ DE RÉFLEXION SUR LE PRÉAMBULE DE LA CONSTITUTION Rapport au president de la republique decembre 2008.pdf


value:
  Although early notions of privacy focused on freedom from intrusion, modern privacy concerns are primarily directed toward control of personal information. Understanding of privacy‐related decisions and consequences, or “privacy literacy,” is an important antecedent to effective information control. A perspective of historical and modern privacy concepts provides directions for future research.


value:
  Promoting <i>i</i> ‐Safety: Effects of Privacy Warnings and Privacy Seals on Risk Assessment and Online Privacy Behavior


value:
  Using social cognitive theory, this study experimentally examines the effects of explicit privacy warnings, a clear, conspicuous, and concise presentation of the benefits and risks associated with database information practices stated in a Web site’s privacy policy. Warnings increased perceptions of the risks associated with information practices and decreased disclosures, but not in the presence of a privacy seal. The effects were also moderated by consumer privacy self‐efficacy and involvement with privacy. The results support the development of privacy warnings as a part of consumer privacy self‐regulatory efforts and the use of a social cognitive paradigm for understanding consumer privacy behaviors.


value:
  The use of Internet seal of approval programs has been touted as an alternative to potential legislation concerning consumer‐related online privacy practices. Questions have been raised, however, regarding the effectiveness of such programs with respect to maintaining privacy standards and aiding online consumers. The authors examine these issues in a series of three studies, the first of which is an exploratory application of Federal Trade Commission privacy standards to various online privacy policies in an effort to determine the ability of seal of approval program participation to act as a valid cue to a firm's stated privacy practices. The second and third studies are experiments designed to ascertain how online firm participation in Internet seal of approval programs affects consumers. Implications for consumer policy are discussed.


value:
  Privacy policies are critical for helping individuals make informed decisions about their personal data. In Europe, privacy policies are subject to compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). If done entirely manually, checking whether a given privacy policy complies with GDPR is both time-consuming and error-prone. Automated support for this task is thus advantageous. At the moment, there is an evident lack of such support on the market. In this paper, we tackle an important dimension of GDPR compliance checking for privacy policies. Speciﬁcally, we provide automated support for checking whether the content of a given privacy policy is complete according to the provisions stipulated by GDPR. To do so, we present: (1) a conceptual model to characterize the information content envisaged by GDPR for privacy policies, (2) an AI-assisted approach for classifying the information content in GDPR privacy policies and subsequently checking how well the classiﬁed content meets the completeness criteria of interest; and (3) an evaluation of our approach through a case study over 24 unseen privacy policies. For classiﬁcation, we leverage a combination of Natural Language Processing and supervised Machine Learning. Our experimental material is comprised of 234 real privacy policies from the fund industry. Our empirical results indicate that our approach detected 45 of the total of 47 incompleteness issues in the 24 privacy policies it was applied to. Over these policies, the approach had eight false positives. The approach thus has a precision of 85% and recall of 96% over our case study.


value:
  Personal information can be considered a shared good, since in many cases this information is accessed, used and distributed by more than just the individual. Thus, how personal information is defined or characterized and why it is valued differs based on whether or not one is the person whom the information describes. This article shows how current debates that influence policy and regulation are largely based on economic and social frameworks, points out policy issues that are evident due to the absence of a “self‐perspective,” and suggests how inclusion of the “self” might lead to more effective policy in the future.


value:
  Standing in the footprint Including the self in the privacy debat and policy development norberg horne horne 2009 FRA.docx


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  Standing in the footprint Including the self in the privacy debat and policy development norberg horne horne 2009 ENG.docx


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  Internet Seals of Approval Effects on Online Privacy POlicies and consumer perceptions Miyazaki 2002 FRA.docx


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  Internet Seals of Approval Effects on Online Privacy POlicies and consumer perceptions Miyazaki 2002 ENG.docx


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  Internet privacy concerns and their antecedents measurment validity and a regression model Dinev Hart 2004 ENG.docx


value:
  Internet privacy concerns and their antecedents measurment validity and a regression model Dinev Hart 2004 FRA.docx


value:
  Privacy in Context Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life (Stanford Law Books) (Helen Nissenbaum) (Z-Library) 2009.pdf


value:
  This introduction, to an issue on privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept, discusses what privacy is, by examining definitions and theories of privacy, and what privacy does, by reviewing the benefits of obtaining privacy and the costs of failing to achieve and of losing privacy. It provides a possible bridge between social psychological and social issues approaches to privacy and examines privacy as a social issue for Americans as citizens, health‐care recipients, consumers, and employees. It then briefly explores behavioral aspects of privacy, including indicators of privacy's importance and the generally overlooked status of privacy in psychology
                .


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  Rising like a Phoenix: Emerging from the Pandemic and Reshaping Human Endeavors with Digital Technologies


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  The Personalization Privacy Paradox An Empirical Evaluation of Information Transparency and the willingness to be profiled online for personalization awad krishan 2006.docx


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  LOI n° 2011-267 du 14 mars 2011 d'orientation et de programmation pour la performance de la sécurité intérieure


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  "Winston Smith toes the Party line, rewriting history to satisfy the demands of the Ministry of Truth. With each lie he writes, Winston grows to hate the Party that seeks power for its own sake and persecutes those who dare to commit thoughtcrimes. But as he starts to think for himself, Winston can't escape the fact that Big Brother is always watching... A startling and haunting vision of the world, 1984 is so powerful that it is completely convincing from start to finish. No one can deny the influence of this novel, its hold on the imaginations of multiple generations of readers, or the resiliency of its admonitions--a legacy that seems only to grow with the passage of time."--Provided by publisher


value:
  La dernière Loi sur le Renseignement autorise l’installation de boites noires chez les fournisseurs d’accès Internet, permettant la saisie administrative de l’ensemble des métadonnées des ressortissants français. Leur traitement algorithmique permettrait d’accéder directement au réel des individus, sans que la question de la vérité puisse être posée, puisque le langage est hors champ. La loi, de caractère surmoïque, efface toute négativité et prétend posséder un savoir absolu sur le réel des individus. Elle se pose ainsi comme l’instrument d’un pouvoir totalitaire.


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  L'âge du capitalisme de surveillance -- Shoshana Zuboff [Zuboff, Shoshana] -- 2019 -- 6809266e3acefff7bf74f3b4ff31e50e -- Anna’s Archive.epub


value:
  Privacy needs on today’s internet differ from the information privacy needs in traditional e-commerce settings due to their focus on interactions among online peers rather than merely transactions with an online vendor. Peer-oriented online interactions have critical implications for an individual’s virtual presence and self-cognition. Yet existing conceptualizations of internet privacy concerns have solely focused on the control of personal information release and on online interactions with online vendors. Drawing on the theory of personal boundaries, this study revisits the theoretical foundation of online privacy and proposes a multidimensional peer-related privacy concern construct, that focuses on privacy violations from online peers. We term this new construct “Peer Privacy Concern” (PrPC) and define it as the general feeling of being unable to maintain functional personal boundaries in online activities as a result of the behavior of online peers. This construct consists of four dimensions comprised of a reconceptualization of information privacy concerns to also reflect privacy concerns with respect to peers’ handling of self-shared information and with respect to peer-shared information about one’s self, and three new dimensions that tap into the arising privacy needs from virtual interactions (i.e., virtual territory privacy concern and communication privacy concern) as well as from the need to maintain psychological independence (i.e., psychological privacy concern). These new dimensions, which are rooted in the theory of personal boundaries, are prominent privacy needs in online social interactions with peers. However, they are absent from previous privacy concern conceptualizations. Scales for measuring this new construct are developed and empirically validated.


value:
  RÈGLEMENT (UE) 2016/679 DU PARLEMENT EUROPÉEN ET DU CONSEIL du 27 avril 2016 relatif à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard du traitement des données à caractère personnel et à la libre circulation de ces données, et abrogeant la directive 95/46/CE (règlement général sur la protection des données)


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  DIRECTIVE (UE) 2016/680 DU PARLEMENT EUROPÉEN ET DU CONSEIL  du 27 avril 2016 relative à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard du traitement des données à caractère personnel par les autorités compétentes à des fins de prévention et de détection des infractions pénales, d'enquêtes et de poursuites en la matière ou d'exécution de sanctions pénales, et à la libre circulation de ces données, et abrogeant la décision-cadre 2008/977/JAI du Conseil


value:
  We show that easily accessible digital records of behavior, Facebook Likes, can be used to automatically and accurately predict a range of highly sensitive personal attributes including: sexual orientation, ethnicity, religious and political views, personality traits, intelligence, happiness, use of addictive substances, parental separation, age, and gender. The analysis presented is based on a dataset of over 58,000 volunteers who provided their Facebook Likes, detailed demographic profiles, and the results of several psychometric tests. The proposed model uses dimensionality reduction for preprocessing the Likes data, which are then entered into logistic/linear regression to predict individual psychodemographic profiles from Likes. The model correctly discriminates between homosexual and heterosexual men in 88% of cases, African Americans and Caucasian Americans in 95% of cases, and between Democrat and Republican in 85% of cases. For the personality trait “Openness,” prediction accuracy is close to the test–retest accuracy of a standard personality test. We give examples of associations between attributes and Likes and discuss implications for online personalization and privacy.


value:
  The personalization privacy paradox: An exploratory study of decision making process for location-aware marketing


value:
  Despite the vast opportunities offered by location-aware marketing (LAM), mobile customers' privacy concerns appear to be a major inhibiting factor in their acceptance of LAM. This study extends the privacy calculus model to explore the personalization–privacy paradox in LAM, with considerations of personal characteristics and two personalization approaches (covert and overt). Through an experimental study, we empirically validated the proposed model. Results suggest that the inﬂuences of personalization on the privacy risk/beneﬁt beliefs vary upon the type of personalization systems (covert and overt), and that personal characteristics moderate the parameters and path structure of the privacy calculus model.


value:
  Adoption de TousAntiCovid et intégration du passe sanitaire : une rationalité sociale dans le privacy calculus ?


value:
  Contact tracing apps are presented as a solution, if not the solution, to curb pandemics in the Covid-19 crisis. In France, despite heated public institutional debate on privacy related issues, the app was presented by government as an essential benefit for protecting health and lives, thus avoiding both politicians and citizens to feel morally responsible and looking guilty, and as essential to recover our freedom to move. However we argue that, while detection of cases have still not been reported after 10 days and one million app downloads - a situation comparable to Australia who launched its app a month before -, the adoption of the app generates important risks to our informational privacy, surveillance and habituation to security policies. It also may create discrimination, distrust and generate other health problems such as addiction and others as 5G technology continues to be deployed without prior impact studies. Finally the smartphone app against covid epidemics appears as an extreme case of the privacy paradox where the government plays on the immediate benefits and downplays long-term concerns while inducing a technology of self. Contact tracing apps may become an emblematic case for digital transformation and value changes in the western world.


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  <b>Research Note</b> —Effects of Individual Self-Protection, Industry Self-Regulation, and Government Regulation on Privacy Concerns: A Study of Location-Based Services


value:
  This study seeks to clarify the nature of control in the context of information privacy to generate insights into the effects of different privacy assurance approaches on context-specific concerns for information privacy. We theorize that such effects are exhibited through mediation by perceived control over personal information and develop arguments in support of the interaction effects involving different privacy assurance approaches (individual self-protection, industry self-regulation, and government legislation). We test the research model in the context of location-based services using data obtained from 178 individuals in Singapore. In general, the results support our core assertion that perceived control over personal information is a key factor affecting context-specific concerns for information privacy. In addition to enhancing our theoretical understanding of the link between control and privacy concerns, these findings have important implications for service providers and consumers as well as for regulatory bodies and technology developers.


value:
  Familiarity with Big Data, Privacy Concerns, and Self-Disclosure Accuracy in Social Networking Websites: An APCO Model


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  Familiarity with Big Data, Privacy Concerns, and Self-Disclosure Accuracy in Social Networking Websites


value:
  Social networking websites have not only become the most prevalent communication tools in today’s digital age but also one of the top big data sources. Big data advocates promote the promising benefits of big data applications to both users and practitioners. However, public polls show evidence of heightened privacy concerns among Internet and social media users. We review the privacy literature based on protection motivation theory and the theory of planned behavior to develop an APCO model that incorporates novel factors that reflect users’ familiarity with big data. Our results, which we obtained from using a cross-sectional survey design and structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques, support most of our proposed hypotheses. Specifically, we found that that awareness of big data had a negative impact on and awareness of big data implications had a positive impact on privacy concerns. In turn, privacy concerns impacted self-disclosure concerns positively and self-disclosure accuracy negatively. We also considered other antecedents of privacy concerns and tested other alternative models to examine the mediating role of privacy concerns, to control for demographic variables, and to investigate different roles of the trust construct. Finally, we discuss the results of our findings and the theoretical and practical implications.


value:
  Empirical Studies on Online Information Privacy Concerns: Literature Review and an Integrative Framework


value:
  In the e-commerce environment, individuals‘ concerns for online information privacy play critical roles in determining their intention to use the Internet to provide personal information for services and transactions. Understanding this relationship has important implications for e-commerce. Despite much research in this area, an overarching picture of the relationship between information privacy concerns and the antecedent and consequence factors is yet to be drawn. Based on a review on empirical studies in this area, this research summarizes the conceptualizations of privacy concerns and the antecedents and consequences. An integrative framework is developed to illustrate the relationships between the factors. In this framework, a person‘s concern for information privacy regarding a specific e-commerce website is distinguished from his/her concern for information privacy regarding the general e-commerce environment. These two forms of privacy concerns have distinct impacts on a person‘s online behavior. Their relationships with multiple antecedent and consequence factors are analyzed.


value:
  Advertisers use online customer data to target their marketing appeals. This has heightened consumers' privacy concerns, leading governments to pass laws designed to protect consumer privacy by restricting the use of data and by restricting online tracking techniques used by websites. We use the responses of 3.3 million survey takers who had been randomly exposed to 9,596 online display (banner) advertising campaigns to explore how privacy regulation in the European Union (EU) has influenced advertising effectiveness. This privacy regulation restricted advertisers' ability to collect data on Web users in order to target ad campaigns. We find that, on average, display advertising became far less effective at changing stated purchase intent after the EU laws were enacted, relative to display advertising in other countries. The loss in effectiveness was more pronounced for websites that had general content (such as news sites), where non-data-driven targeting is particularly hard to do. The loss of effectiveness was also more pronounced for ads with a smaller presence on the webpage and for ads that did not have additional interactive, video, or audio features.
              This paper was accepted by Pradeep Chintagunta, marketing.


value:
  We use the Power–Responsibility Equilibrium (PRE) framework and advance that consumers balance perceived deficits in privacy protection by power holders (businesses and regulators) with defensive actions. In our model, consumer privacy concern is the endogenous mediating entity linking business policy and regulatory perceptions to negative online user responses. The model was empirically tested and confirmed in an experimental setting. In a second study, we added the nature of consumer information involved into a sub-model. Here, we investigated the moderating role of information sensitivity and congruency on the business policy–concern relationship across three industry contexts. Both hypothesized two-way interactions were confirmed, suggesting that a strong business policy is effective in reducing concern when low sensitivity data are gathered, but insufficient in reducing concern for highly sensitive data. Furthermore, concern increased dramatically when sensitive data were collected that were incongruent with the business context.


value:
  The General Attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence Scale (GAAIS): Confirmatory Validation and Associations with Personality, Corporate Distrust, and General Trust


value:
  Acceptance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) may be predicted by individual psychological correlates, examined here. Study 1 reports confirmatory validation of the General Attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence Scale (GAAIS) following initial validation elsewhere. Confirmatory Factor Analysis confirmed the two-factor structure (Positive, Negative) and showed good convergent and divergent validity with a related scale. Study 2 tested whether psychological factors (Big Five personality traits, corporate distrust, and general trust) predicted attitudes towards AI. Introverts had more positive attitudes towards AI overall, likely because of algorithm appreciation. Conscientiousness and agreeableness were associated with forgiving attitudes towards negative aspects of AI. Higher corporate distrust led to negative attitudes towards AI overall, while higher general trust led to positive views of the benefits of AI. The dissociation between general trust and corporate distrust may reflect the public’s attributions of the benefits and drawbacks of AI. Results are discussed in relation to theory and prior findings.


value:
  Privacy regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) require websites to inform EU-based users about non-essential data collection and to request their consent to this practice. Previous studies have documented widespread violations of these regulations. However, these studies provide a limited view of the general compliance picture: they are either restricted to a subset of notice types, detect only simple violations using prescribed patterns, or analyze notices manually. Thus, they are restricted both in their scope and in their ability to analyze violations at scale. We present the first general, automated, large-scale analysis of cookie notice compliance. Our method interacts with cookie notices, e.g., by navigating through their settings. It observes declared processing purposes and available consent options using Natural Language Processing and compares them to the actual use of cookies. By virtue of the generality and scale of our analysis, we correct for the selection bias present in previous studies focusing on specific Consent Management Platforms (CMP). We also provide a more general view of the overall compliance picture using a set of 97k websites popular in the EU. We report, in particular, that 65.4% of websites offering a cookie rejection option likely collect user data despite explicit negative consent.


value:
  A new General Attitudes towards Artiﬁcial Intelligence Scale (GAAIS) was developed. The scale underwent initial statistical validation via Exploratory Factor Analysis, which identiﬁed positive and negative subscales. Both subscales captured emotions in line with their valence. In addition, the positive subscale reﬂected societal and personal utility, whereas the negative subscale reﬂected concerns. The scale showed good psychometric indices and convergent and discriminant validity against existing measures. To cross-validate general attitudes with attitudes towards speciﬁc instances of AI applications, summaries of tasks accomplished by speciﬁc applications of Artiﬁcial Intelligence were sourced from newspaper articles. These were rated for comfortableness and perceived capability. Comfortableness with speciﬁc applications was a strong predictor of general attitudes as measured by the GAAIS, but perceived capability was a weaker predictor. Participants viewed AI applications involving big data (e.g. astronomy, law, pharmacology) positively, but viewed applications for tasks involving human judgement, (e.g. medical treatment, psychological counselling) negatively. Applications with a strong ethical dimension led to stronger discomfort than their rated capabilities would predict. The survey data suggested that people held mixed views of AI. The initially validated two-factor GAAIS to measure General Attitudes towards Artiﬁcial Intelligence is included in the Appendix.


value:
  Fueled by ever-growing amounts of (digital) data and advances in artificial intelligence, decision-making in contemporary societies is increasingly delegated to automated processes. Drawing from social science theories and from the emerging body of research about algorithmic appreciation and algorithmic perceptions, the current study explores the extent to which personal characteristics can be linked to perceptions of automated decision-making by AI, and the boundary conditions of these perceptions, namely the extent to which such perceptions differ across media, (public) health, and judicial contexts. Data from a scenario-based survey experiment with a national sample (N = 958) show that people are by and large concerned about risks and have mixed opinions about fairness and usefulness of automated decision-making at a societal level, with general attitudes influenced by individual characteristics. Interestingly, decisions taken automatically by AI were often evaluated on par or even better than human experts for specific decisions. Theoretical and societal implications about these findings are discussed.


value:
  As the influence and use of artificial intelligence (AI) have grown and its transformative potential has become more apparent, many questions have been raised regarding the economic, political, social, and ethical implications of its use. Public opinion plays an important role in these discussions, influencing product adoption, commercial development, research funding, and regulation. In this paper we present results of an in-depth survey of public opinion of artificial intelligence conducted with 10,005 respondents spanning eight countries and six continents. We report widespread perception that AI will have significant impact on society, accompanied by strong support for the responsible development and use of AI, and also characterize the public’s sentiment towards AI with four key themes (exciting, useful, worrying, and futuristic) whose prevalence distinguishes response to AI in different countries.


value:
  Public relations’ (PR) professional habitus is defined by a relentless focus on optimism and futurity. This professional habitus renders PR indispensable to the corporate world after crisis, when new, potentially controversial, growth strategies must be sold-in to stakeholders. This article argues that PR’s professional habitus is heavily influenced by neoliberalism, an ideology which ‘confidently identifies itself with the future’. The discussion is timely, as 21st-century neoliberal capitalism becomes redefined by artificial intelligence (AI). The article combines PR theory, communications theory and political economy to consider the changing shape of neoliberal capitalism, as AI becomes naturalised as ‘common sense’ and a ‘public good’. The article explores how PR supports AI discourses, including promoting AI in national competitiveness and promoting ‘friendly’ AI to consumers, while promoting Internet inequalities. The article concludes that the PR profession’s myopia regarding the implications of promoting AI and neoliberalism is shaped by poor levels of diversity in the PR profession.


value:
  Who Likes Artificial Intelligence? Personality Predictors of Attitudes toward Artificial Intelligence


value:
  We examined how individuals’ personality relates to various attitudes toward artificial intelligence (AI). Attitudes were organized into two dimensions of affective components (positive and negative emotions) and two dimensions of cognitive components (sociality and functionality). For personality, we focused on the Big Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness) and personal innovativeness in information technology. Based on a survey of 1,530 South Korean adults, we found that extraversion was related to negative emotions and low functionality. Agreeableness was associated with both positive and negative emotions, and it was positively associated with sociality and functionality. Conscientiousness was negatively related to negative emotions, and it was associated with high functionality, but also with low sociality. Neuroticism was related to negative emotions, but also to high sociality. Openness was positively linked to functionality, but did not predict other attitudes when other proximal predictors were included (e.g. prior use, personal innovativeness). Personal innovativeness in information technology consistently showed positive attitudes toward AI across all four dimensions. These findings provide mixed support for our hypotheses, and we discuss specific implications for future research and practice.


value:
  The Threats of Artificial Intelligence Scale (TAI): Development, Measurement and Test Over Three Application Domains


value:
  In recent years Artiﬁcial Intelligence (AI) has gained much popularity, with the scientiﬁc community as well as with the public. Often, AI is ascribed many positive impacts for different social domains such as medicine and the economy. On the other side, there is also growing concern about its precarious impact on society and individuals, respectively. Several opinion polls frequently query the public fear of autonomous robots and artiﬁcial intelligence, a phenomenon coming also into scholarly focus. As potential threat perceptions arguably vary with regard to the reach and consequences of AI functionalities and the domain of application, research still lacks necessary precision of a respective measurement that allows for wide-spread research applicability. We propose a ﬁne-grained scale to measure threat perceptions of AI that accounts for four functional classes of AI systems and is applicable to various domains of AI applications. Using a standardized questionnaire in a survey study (N = 891), we evaluate the scale over three distinct AI domains (medical treatment, job recruitment, and loan origination). The data support the dimensional structure of the proposed Threats of AI (TAI) scale as well as the internal consistency and factoral validity of the indicators. Implications of the results and the empirical application of the scale are discussed in detail. Recommendations for further empirical use of the TAI scale are provided.


value:
  What consumers know and what they do: An investigation of consumer knowledge, awareness, and use of privacy protection strategies


value:
  This study examines consumer knowledge of privacy-related laws and practices, and consumer awareness and use of strategies that may protect the consumer's privacy. Consumers were found to have very little knowledge of direct marketing practices and regulations. While consumers were fairly well informed on privacy-protection strategies, their use of these strategies was quite low.
              This study also investigates whether several consumer traits, namely gender, age, telephone number listing status, and desire to receive direct marketing solicitations, had any relationship to the consumer's awareness and use of privacy-protection strategies. It was found that males and young people were more likely than their counterparts to be aware of privacy-protection strategies. Those most likely to use privacy-protection strategies were young people and people who disliked receiving direct marketing solicitations.


value:
  https://www.lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2015/03/18/les-critiques-de-la-cnil-contre-le-projet-de-loi-sur-le-renseignement_4595839_4408996.html


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  LOI n° 2016-731 du 3 juin 2016 renforçant la lutte contre le crime organisé, le terrorisme et leur financement, et améliorant l'efficacité et les garanties de la procédure pénale


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  LOI n° 2017-1510 du 30 octobre 2017 renforçant la sécurité intérieure et la lutte contre le terrorisme


value:
  https://next.ink/18604/93778-des-hebergeurs-menacent-quitter-france-en-cas-d-adoption-loi-renseignement/


value:
  https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=186492&pageIndex=0&doclang=FR&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1785442


value:
  https://www.laquadrature.net/2019/10/11/recours-contre-le-renseignement-compte-rendu-de-notre-audience-devant-la-cour-de-justice-de-lunion-europeenne/


value:
  Recours contre le renseignement : compte-rendu de notre audience devant la Cour de Justice de l’Union européenne


value:
  LOI n° 2021-998 du 30 juillet 2021 relative à la prévention d'actes de terrorisme et au renseignement


value:
  Legitimate Interest is the New Consent -- Large-Scale Measurement and Legal Compliance of IAB Europe TCF Paywalls


value:
  Cookie paywalls allow visitors of a website to access its content only after they make a choice between paying a fee or accept tracking. European Data Protection Authorities (DPAs) recently issued guidelines and decisions on paywalls lawfulness, but it is yet unknown whether websites comply with them. We study in this paper the prevalence of cookie paywalls on the top one million websites using an automatic crawler. We identify 431 cookie paywalls, all using the Transparency and Consent Framework (TCF). We then analyse the data these paywalls communicate through the TCF, and in particular, the legal grounds and the purposes used to collect personal data. We observe that cookie paywalls extensively rely on legitimate interest legal basis systematically conflated with consent. We also observe a lack of correlation between the presence of paywalls and legal decisions or guidelines by DPAs.


value:
  Managing artificial intelligence (AI) marks the dawn of a new age of information technology management. Managing AI involves communicating, leading, coordinating, and controlling an ever-evolving frontier of computational advancements that references human intelligence in addressing ever more complex decisionmaking problems. It means making decisions about three related, interdependent facets of AI—autonomy, learning, and inscrutability—in the ongoing quest to push the frontiers of performance and scope of AI. We demonstrate how the frontiers of AI have shifted with time, and explain how the seven exemplar studies included in this special issue are helping us learn about management at the frontiers of AI. We close by speculating about future frontiers in managing AI and what role information systems scholarship has in exploring and shaping this future.


value:
  Artificial intelligence (AI) has an impact on business and society at large while posing challenges and risks. For AI adoption, trustworthiness is paramount, yet there appears to be a gap between theory and practice. Organizations need guidance in quantitatively assessing and improving the trustworthiness of AI systems. To address such challenges, maturity models have shown to be a valuable instrument. However, recent AI maturity models address trustworthiness only at the maturest level. As a response, we propose a model to integrate the concept of trustworthiness across the AI lifecycle management. In doing so, we follow Design Science Research to develop a holistic model highlighting the importance of trustworthiness throughout the AI adoption journey to realize the real value potential. This research-in-progress contributes to the emerging research on human-AI systems and managing AI. Our objective is to use the model for assessing, evaluating, and improving trustworthy AI on an organizational level.


value:
  The Digital Markets Act (DMA) constitutes a crucial part of the European legislative framework addressing the dominance of ‘Big Tech’. It intends to foster fairness and competition in Europe’s digital platform economy by imposing obligations on ‘gatekeepers’ to share end-user-related information with business users. Yet, this may involve the processing of personal data subject to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The obligation to provide access to personal data in a GDPR-compliant manner poses a regulatory and technical challenge and can serve as a justification for gatekeepers to refrain from data sharing. In this research-in-progress paper, we analyze key tensions between the DMA and the GDPR through the paradox perspective. We argue through a task-technology fit approach how privacyenhancing technologies – particularly anonymization techniques – and portability could help mediate tensions between data sharing and privacy. Our contribution provides theoretical and practical insights to facilitate legal compliance.


value:
  Purpose – Research on online user privacy shows that empirical evidence on how privacy literacy relates to users’ information privacy empowerment is missing. To fill this gap, this paper investigated the respective influence of two primary dimensions of online privacy literacy – namely declarative and procedural knowledge – on online users’ information privacy empowerment.


value:
  This study explores the unintended consequences of data protection regulations on consumer behavior. Specifically, we examine the California Consumer Privacy Act, which restricts companies from collecting Californians’ personal information. Privacy regulations may limit firms’ ability to suggest products aligned with consumers’ taste predicted from data, potentially influencing subsequent consumer behavior. These regulations especially pose a challenge to digital platforms, as their success hinges on seamless data flow between firms and consumers. Using a difference-in-differences approach with transaction data, we find that post-CCPA, Californians reduce purchase by 4.1%, increase returns by 2.9%. Moreover, we find that Californians spend more time online and visit more webpages, potentially indicating increased search efforts. Mechanism analysis suggests that firms under CCPA proactively alter their data collection strategy to reduce the liability. These results reveal the complex interplay between privacy regulation and consumer behavior, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of the trade-offs between privacy protection and economic outcomes.


value:
  Setting the future of digital and social media marketing research: Perspectives and research propositions


value:
  The use of the internet and social media have changed consumer behavior and the ways in which companies conduct their business. Social and digital marketing offers significant opportunities to organizations through lower costs, improved brand awareness and increased sales. However, significant challenges exist from negative electronic word-of-mouth as well as intrusive and irritating online brand presence. This article brings together the collective insight from several leading experts on issues relating to digital and social media marketing. The experts’ perspectives offer a detailed narrative on key aspects of this important topic as well as perspectives on more specific issues including artificial intelligence, augmented reality marketing, digital content management, mobile marketing and advertising, B2B marketing, electronic word of mouth and ethical issues therein. This research offers a significant and timely contribution to both researchers and practitioners in the form of chal­ lenges and opportunities where we highlight the limitations within the current research, outline the research gaps and develop the questions and propositions that can help advance knowledge within the domain of digital and social marketing.


value:
  The EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) contains several data subject rights, but for many of these rights it is not entirely clear how they should work in practice, especially in digital environments. Most data subject rights apply to personal data obtained directly or indirectly from the data subject. This is often personal data that data subjects already are familiar with, i.e., things they already know about themselves. Unclear, however, is to what extent ascribed personal data, such as inferred data and categories or profiles in which data subjects are placed by data controllers, are within the scope of these rights. Such ascribed personal data often concerns novel information, generated by data controllers, and includes insights into how controllers view and assess them, which may have practical and legal impact on data subjects. Given these characteristics, the ascribed personal data may be much more interesting to data subjects, so it appears beneficial, from the policy perspective, to have this novel information included in the scope of data subject rights. If data subject rights do not apply to inferred data and profiles, invoking these rights is unlikely to be informative and provide meaningful information for data subjects, particularly in complex, digital environments. However, if data subject rights do apply to inferred data and profiles, the scope of these rights may be hard to delineate and they may quickly interfere with rights and freedoms of others, including trade secrets of data controllers and privacy rights of other data subjects. In this article, we investigate the implications of applying data subject rights to inferred data and profiles. For each data subject right in the GDPR, we assess which types of personal data could and perhaps should be in scope, based on grammatical and teleological legal analyses as well as practical considerations. While the area of data subject rights received significant academic attention in the past years, our article con­ tributes to the discussion by providing a systematic, holistic framework to consider the scope of the rights in relation to ascribed data.


value:
  In July 2020, the European Court of Justice invalidated the EU-US Privacy Shield with immediate effect (“Schrems II”). As a result, almost all personal data transfers from the European Union to the United States became illegal overnight. We present a unique dataset allowing us not only to observe what firms say about their behavior in privacy policies, but also how firms actually behave. Using machine-learning tools, we analyze the privacy policies of over 7,500 apps on the Spanish Google Play Store and find limited compliance with the Schrems II decision. We validate the quality of our classifier through manual inspection of privacy policies. Using tools from IT security research, we are able to observe the actual personal data traffic flows leaving apps towards the United States after Schrems II. Combining our observations on privacy policies and data traffic flows, our findings on compliance with Schrems II are sobering. A few weeks after Schrems II was decided, only 23% of the studied apps in our sample seem to comply with the decision while 77% seem to violate the GDPR. Over two years after Schrems II, the rate of compliant apps increases, yet we estimate that roughly 45% of the apps are non-compliant. We examine the implications our findings have for the design and enforcement of the GDPR, and on the notion of diffusion of EU laws (‘Brussle effect’) and discuss how the combination of an automated analysis of contracts and of actual data traffic flows can improve our understanding on how to regulate the digital economy at large scale.


value:
  https://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/death-privacy-policies-how-app-stores-shape-gdpr-compliance-apps


value:
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) obliges data controllers to inform users about data processing practices. Long criticised for inefficiency, privacy policies face a substantive shift with the recent introduction of privacy labels by the Apple App Store and the Google Play Store. This paper illustrates how privacy disclosures of apps are governed by both the GDPR and the contractual obligations of app stores and is complemented by empirical insights into the privacy disclosures of 845,375 apps from the Apple App Store and 1,657,353 apps from the Google Play Store. While the GDPR allows for the use of privacy labels as a complementary tool next to privacy policies, the design of the privacy labels does not satisfy the standards set in Art. 5(1)(a) GDPR and Art. 12-14 GDPR. The app stores may consequently distort the compliance of apps with data protection laws. The empirical data highlight further problems with the privacy labels. The design of the labels favours disclosures of developers that offer a variety of apps that can process data across different services and contradictory disclosures do not get flagged nor verified by app stores. The paper contributes to the overall discussion of how app stores in their role as intermediaries govern privacy standards and the impact of private sector-led initiatives.


value:
  The European Commission recently released its proposal for a Regulation giving rise to a European Health Data Space (EHDS), as the first domain-specific common European data space under the European Union’s data strategy. The proposed EHDS aims to improve access to and control by individuals of their personal electronic health data in primary use and increase data availability for secondary use purposes. This article is primarily concerned with the ambition to enhance the right of natural persons to data portability and promote interop­ erability in the health sector. This article seeks to delineate to what extent they represent a new and expanded right alongside the right to data portability provided in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In comparing this new expanded right to the original right outlined in Article 20 of the GDPR, the authors argue that Article 3(8) of the EHDS proposal represents an important expansion with the potential to allow individuals more possibility to control and mobilise their electronic health data, especially those elements located within Electronic Health Records (EHRs). This will also be facilitated by the strengthened interoperability requirements foreseen by the EHDS proposal. However, this paper also identifies several limitations and inconsistencies in the new data portability right which could potentially hinder its functioning. This notably includes the proposal’s failure to take into account the need for data portability for secondary use purposes, and the unclear relationship of Article 3(8) of the proposal with Article 9 of the GDPR. It is recommended that these points should be considered carefully in future versions of the EHDS proposal.


value:
  Social media allows people to freely interact with others and offers multiple ways for marketers to reach and engage with consumers. Considering the numerous ways social media affects individuals and businesses alike, in this article, the authors focus on where they believe the future of social media lies when considering marketing-related topics and issues. Drawing on academic research, discussions with industry leaders, and popular discourse, the authors identify nine themes, organized by predicted imminence (i.e., the immediate, near, and far futures), that they believe will meaningfully shape the future of social media through three lenses: consumer, industry, and public policy. Within each theme, the authors describe the digital landscape, present and discuss their predictions, and identify relevant future research directions for academics and practitioners.


value:
  Ad-blocking applications have become increasingly popular among Internet users. Ad-blockers offer various privacy- and security-enhancing features: they can reduce personal data collection and exposure to malicious advertising, help safeguard users’ decision-making autonomy, reduce users’ costs (by increasing the speed of page loading), and improve the browsing experience (by reducing visual clutter). On the other hand, the online advertising industry has claimed that ads increase consumers’ economic welfare by helping them ﬁnd better, cheaper deals faster. If so, using ad-blockers would deprive consumers of these beneﬁts. However, little is known about the actual economic impact of ad-blockers.


value:
  Policymakers worldwide draft privacy laws that require trading-off between safeguarding consumer privacy and preventing economic loss to companies that use consumer data. However, little empirical knowledge exists as to how privacy laws affect companies’ performance. Accordingly, this paper empirically quantifies the effects of the enforcement of the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) on online user behavior over time, analyzing data from 6,286 websites spanning 24 industries during the 10 months before and 18 months after the GDPR’s enforcement in 2018. A panel differences estimator, with a synthetic control group approach, isolates the short- and long-term effects of the GDPR on user behavior. The results show that, on average, the GDPR’s effects on user quantity and usage intensity are negative; e.g., the numbers of total visits to a website decrease by 4.9% and 10% due to GDPR in respectively the short- and long-term. These effects could translate into average revenue losses of $7 million for e-commerce websites and almost $2.5 million for ad-based websites 18 months after GDPR. The GDPR’s effects vary across websites, with some industries even benefiting from it; moreover, more-popular websites suffer less, suggesting that the GDPR increased market concentration.


value:
  The EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is one of the most demanding and comprehensive privacy regulations of all time. A year after it went into effect, we study its impact on the landscape of privacy policies online. We conduct the first longitudinal, in-depth, and at-scale assessment of privacy policies before and after the GDPR. We gauge the complete consumption cycle of these policies, from the first user impressions until the compliance assessment. We create a diverse corpus of two sets of 6,278 unique English-language privacy policies from inside and outside the EU, covering their pre-GDPR and the post-GDPR versions. The results of our tests and analyses suggest that the GDPR has been a catalyst for a major overhaul of the privacy policies inside and outside the EU. This overhaul of the policies, manifesting in extensive textual changes, especially for the EU-based websites, comes at mixed benefits to the users. While the privacy policies have become considerably longer, our user study with 470 participants on Amazon MTurk indicates a significant improvement in the visual representation of privacy policies from the users’ perspective for the EU websites. We further develop a new workflow for the automated assessment of requirements in privacy policies. Using this workflow, we show that privacy policies cover more data practices and are more consistent with seven compliance requirements post the GDPR. We also assess how transparent the organizations are with their privacy practices by performing specificity analysis. In this analysis, we find evidence for positive changes triggered by the GDPR, with the specificity level improving on average. Still, we find the landscape of privacy policies to be in a transitional phase; many policies still do not meet several key GDPR requirements or their improved coverage comes with reduced specificity.


value:
  Objective: This study proposes a comprehensive taxonomy of privacy requirements, drawing from the Brazilian General Data Protection Law (LGPD) and ISO/IEC 29100. The aim is to assist software development teams in navigating the complexities of legal compliance.
  Method: To define the research gap, we conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) initially, identifying existing taxonomies of privacy requirements. Subsequently, we applied the Goal-Based Requirements Analysis Method (GBRAM) to extract privacy requirements from LGPD and ISO/IEC 29000. Finally, we implemented the proposed taxonomy in the privacy policies of Brazil’s three largest banks.
  Results: The taxonomy comprises 129 requirements, categorized into 10 distinct groups across 5 contexts. In applying the taxonomy to ISO/IEC 29100, analysis of 63 statements for GDPR+ISO/IEC 29100 yielded 33 requirements, whereas for LGPD+ISO/IEC 29100, 58 statements resulted in 57 requirements. Application of the taxonomy revealed adherence percentages ranging from 40% to 71% concerning the evaluated solutions.
  Conclusions: The outcomes strongly suggest that major corporations are yet to achieve full LGPD compliance. We posit that the proposed taxonomy offers a valuable industry tool for validating LGPD compliance within implemented systems, as exemplified by our successful use case with Brazilian banks.


value:
  Uncovering the structures of privacy research using bibliometric network analysis and topic modelling


value:
  Purpose – This paper aims that privacy research is divided in distinct communities and rarely considered as a singular field, harming its disciplinary identity. The authors collected 119.810 publications and over 3 million references to perform a bibliometric domain analysis as a quantitative approach to uncover the structures within the privacy research field.


value:
  AI Plus Other Technologies? The Impact of ChatGPT and Creativity Support Systems on Individual Creativity


value:
  The emergence of generative artificial intelligence (AI) has triggered a massive technological surge. Software and systems increasingly incorporate generative AI as a fundamental component of their applications. Unfortunately, there is a lack of awareness of the interaction between generative AI and other tools and their consequences and causes. In this research, we explored the impact of the concurrent use of generative AI and creativity support systems (CSS) on users’ creativity. In addition, by categorizing the stimuli provided by the CSS into high and low relatedness, we further investigated the effects of using generative AI with various CSS. By focusing on the interaction effect between generative AI and CSS, this research not only sheds light on the broader implications of generative AI but also serves as a guiding framework for the evolution of future CSS and furthering the enhancement of individual creativity.


value:
  Transparency provisions, and the right of access in particular, have been an integral part of data protection law since the seventies but received a much-needed refresh with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Throughout the last few years, judicial and administrative authorities have clarified the scope and modalities of access, and a number of empirical studies have shed light the right has (not) been complied with in different contexts. So far, that empirical work has remained relatively disparate and hard to compare.


value:
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is in effect since May of 2018. As one of the most comprehensive pieces of legislation concerning privacy, it sparked a lot of discussion on the effect it would have on users and providers of online services in particular, due to the large amount of personal data processed in this context. Almost three years later, we are interested in revisiting this question to summarize the impact this new regulation has had on actors in the World Wide Web. Using Scopus, we obtain a vast corpus of academic work to survey studies related to changes on websites since and around the time the GDPR went into force. Our findings show that the emphasis on privacy increased w.r.t. online services, but plenty potential for improvements remains. Although online services are on average more transparent regarding data processing practices in their public data policies, a majority of these policies still either lack information required by the GDPR (e.g., contact information for users to file privacy inquiries) or do not provide this information in a user-friendly form. Additionally, we summarize that online services more often provide means for their users to opt out of data processing, but regularly obstruct convenient access to such means through unnecessarily complex and sometimes illegitimate interface design. Our survey further details that this situation contradicts the preferences expressed by users both verbally and through their actions, and researchers have proposed multiple approaches to facilitate GDPR-conform data processing without negatively impacting the user experience. Thus, we compiled reoccurring points of criticism by privacy researchers and data protection authorities into a list of four guidelines for service providers to consider.


value:
  Heightened protection for sensitive data is becoming quite trendy in privacy laws around the world. Originating in European Union (EU) data protection law and included in the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation, sensitive data singles out certain categories of personal data for extra protection. Commonly recognized special categories of sensitive data include racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade union membership, health, sexual orientation and sex life, and biometric and genetic data.


value:
  In recent years, data privacy has attracted increasing public concerns, especially with public scandals from top Internet companies, emerging over inappropriate data collection, lack of transparency in data usage, and manipulation of users’ preferences. This has led to responsive efforts from multiple sectors of society to constrain the violation of individuals’ data privacy. Among these efforts, the regulations like GDPR are the most influential, which are believed to be able to change the foundation of the whole data ecosystem. The main concern of current regulation is data transparency, designed to enable individuals to make rational decisions about their data. However, I argue that transparency cannot mitigate a key issue of data privacy, which is the right of receiving benefits from data. This issue is getting severe with the rapid development of the data economy and will become the essential problem of social welfare and fairness in the AI era. I further point out that the key to solving this issue is to migrate the current centralized data utilization paradigm to a new decentralized paradigm. Based on the recent technical advancements, I propose an applicable pathway to implement such a paradigm. And to realize a fair and sustainable data eco-system, joint efforts should be made within this paradigm.


value:
  This Review provides an overview of the comparative review of data privacy laws and compliance, focusing on the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR) and data protection regulations in the United States. The analysis explores key similarities and differences, emphasizing their implications for businesses and individuals. The EU GDPR, implemented in 2018, stands as a landmark regulation governing data protection and privacy for individuals within the European Union and the European Economic Area. In contrast, the United States lacks a comprehensive federal data privacy law. Instead, it relies on a patchwork of sector-specific laws and state regulations, such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).  One major distinction lies in the overarching principles of these regulations. The EU GDPR adopts a comprehensive and rights-based approach, emphasizing individual rights to privacy, data portability, and the "right to be forgotten." In contrast, the U.S. system often focuses on specific industries or types of data, leading to a more fragmented regulatory landscape. Both regulatory frameworks incorporate principles of transparency, consent, and data breach notification. However, differences in enforcement mechanisms and penalties exist. The EU GDPR imposes significant fines for non-compliance, reaching up to 4% of a company's global annual revenue. In the U.S., penalties vary by state, and enforcement is often reactive, triggered by data breaches. Businesses operating globally must navigate these distinct regulatory landscapes, necessitating a nuanced approach to data privacy compliance. Multinational corporations must adhere to the more stringent requirements when handling EU citizens' data while also considering the diverse regulations within the U.S. This review underscores the ongoing evolution of data privacy laws worldwide and the critical importance for organizations to stay abreast of these developments. It emphasizes the need for a proactive and adaptive approach to data privacy compliance, taking into account the unique requirements and expectations of both the EU GDPR and U.S. regulations. 
  Keywords: Data Privacy, Laws, Compliance, EU GDPR, Regulations.


value:
  An appropriate problem-solution-fit is essential to develop purposeful artificial intelligence (AI) applications. However, in domains with an unintuitive problem-solution-fit, such as project management (PM), organizations require methodological guidance. Hence, we propose a five-step method to develop organization-specific AI use cases: First, companies must consider the context factors technology, organization (in particular data and application domain), and environment. Second, companies must identify existing domain problems and AI solutions. Third, our method facilitates abstraction to understand the underlying nature of the identified problems and AI solutions. Fourth, our problem-solutionmatrix assists companies to match AI functions with the domain context. Fifth, companies derive necessary implications for the subsequent use case implementation. To construct and evaluate our method, we followed the design science research paradigm complemented by situational method engineering and based on 14 interviews. Our method addresses a relevant practical problem and contributes to identifying purposeful AI use cases in unintuitive application domains.


value:
  Project Group Business & Information Systems Engineering of the Fraunhofer FIT, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany et al. - 2020 - Developing Purposeful AI Use Cases – A Structured .pdf


value:
  Driven by data proliferation, digital technologies have transformed the marketing landscape. In parallel, significant privacy concerns have shaken consumer–firm relationships, prompting changes in both regulatory interventions and people’s own privacy-protective behaviors. With a comprehensive analysis of digital technologies and data strategy informed by structuration theory and privacy literature, the authors consider privacy tensions as the product of firm–consumer interactions, facilitated by digital technologies. This perspective in turn implies distinct consumer, regulatory, and firm responses related to data protection. By consolidating various perspectives, the authors propose three tenets and seven propositions, supported by interview insights from senior managers and consumer informants, that create a foundation for understanding the digital technology implications for firm performance in contexts marked by growing privacy worries and legal ramifications. On the basis of this conceptual framework, they also propose a data strategy typology across two main strategic functions of digital technologies: data monetization and data sharing. The result is four distinct types of firms, which engage in disparate behaviors in the broader ecosystem pertaining to privacy issues. This article also provides directions for research, according to a synthesis of findings from both academic and practical perspectives.


value:
  In the rapidly evolving landscape of technology, the intersection with data privacy laws has become a focal point for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners alike. This paper provides a comprehensive and critical examination of the global data privacy laws in light of the profound impact of technology on user rights. As the digital era progresses, the balance between technological innovation and the protection of individual privacy rights has become increasingly complex. The analysis encompasses a wide range of global data privacy frameworks, including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), and other relevant regional legislations. The paper explores the challenges and opportunities presented by emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics, in shaping the landscape of data protection. Furthermore, the study evaluates the effectiveness and enforcement mechanisms of existing data privacy laws in addressing the ethical implications of technology, particularly in the context of user consent, data breaches, and algorithmic decision-making. Special attention is given to the evolving nature of digital surveillance, biometric data processing, and the implications of crossborder data transfers. In order to foster a comprehensive understanding, the paper also reviews the evolving nature of user rights and consent in the digital age. It critically examines the adequacy of current legal frameworks in addressing the challenges posed by technology-driven intrusions into individual privacy, considering issues of transparency, accountability, and user empowerment. By providing a nuanced analysis of the interplay between global data privacy laws and technological advancements, this paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on the need for adaptive and robust legal frameworks. It calls for a proactive approach to address the evolving landscape, advocating for a harmonized and globally inclusive regulatory environment that safeguards user rights without stifling technological innovation.


value:
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into effect in May 2018 and is designed to safeguard European Union (EU) citizens’ data privacy. The benefits of the regulation to consumers’ rights and to regulators’ powers are well known. The benefits to regulated businesses are less obvious and under-researched.


value:
  Google Spain SL et Google Inc. contre Agencia Española de Protección de Datos (AEPD) et Mario Costeja González.


value:
  We study consumer privacy choice in the context of online display advertising, where advertisers track consumers’ browsing to improve ad targeting. In 2010, the American ad industry self-regulated by implementing the AdChoices program: consumers could opt out of online behavioral advertising via a dedicated website, which can be reached by clicking the overlaid AdChoices icons on ads. We examine the real-world uptake of AdChoices using transaction data from an ad exchange. Though consumers express strong privacy concerns in surveys, we ﬁnd that only 0.23% of American ad impressions arise from users who opted out of online behavioral advertising. We also ﬁnd that opt-out user ads fetch 52% less revenue on the exchange than comparable ads for users who allow behavioral targeting. These ﬁndings are broadly consistent with evidence from the European Union and Canada, where industry subsequently implemented the AdChoices program. We calculate that the inability to behaviorally target opt-out users results in a loss of about $8.58 in ad spending per American opt-out consumer, which is borne by publishers and the exchange. We ﬁnd that opt-out users tend to be more technologically sophisticated, though opt-out rates are also higher in older and wealthier American cities. These results inform the privacy policy discussion by illuminating the realworld consequences of an opt-out privacy mechanism.


value:
  Artificial Intelligence (AI): Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agenda for research, practice and policy


value:
  As far back as the industrial revolution, significant development in technical innovation has succeeded in transforming numerous manual tasks and processes that had been in existence for decades where humans had reached the limits of physical capacity. Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers this same transformative potential for the augmentation and potential replacement of human tasks and activities within a wide range of industrial, intellectual and social applications. The pace of change for this new AI technological age is staggering, with new breakthroughs in algorithmic machine learning and autonomous decision-making, engendering new opportu­ nities for continued innovation. The impact of AI could be significant, with industries ranging from: finance, healthcare, manufacturing, retail, supply chain, logistics and utilities, all potentially disrupted by the onset of AI technologies. The study brings together the collective insight from a number of leading expert contributors to highlight the significant opportunities, realistic assessment of impact, challenges and potential research agenda posed by the rapid emergence of AI within a number of domains: business and management, government, public sector, and science and technology. This research offers significant and timely insight to AI technology and its impact on the future of industry and society in general, whilst recognising the societal and industrial influence on pace and direction of AI development.


value:
  Artificial Intelligence (AI) are a wide-ranging set of technologies that promise several advantages for organizations in terms off added business value. Over the past few years, organizations are increasingly turning to AI in order to gain business value following a deluge of data and a strong increase in computational capacity. Nevertheless, organizations are still struggling to adopt and leverage AI in their operations. The lack of a coherent understanding of how AI technologies create business value, and what type of business value is expected, therefore necessitates a holistic understanding. This study provides a systematic literature review that attempts to explain how organizations can leverage AI technologies in their operations and elucidate the valuegenerating mechanisms. Our analysis synthesizes the current literature and highlights: (1) the key enablers and inhibitors of AI adoption and use; (2) the typologies of AI use in the organizational setting; and (3) the first- and second-order effects of AI. The paper concludes with an identification of the gaps in the literature and develops a research agenda that identifies areas that need to be addressed by future studies.


value:
  Research on artiﬁcial intelligence in the last two decades has greatly improved performance of both manufacturing and service systems. Currently, there is a dire need for an article that presents a holistic literature survey of worldwide, theoretical frameworks and practical experiences in the ﬁeld of artiﬁcial intelligence. This paper reports the state-ofthe-art on artiﬁcial intelligence in an integrated, concise, and elegantly distilled manner to show the experiences in the ﬁeld. In particular, this paper provides a broad review of recent developments within the ﬁeld of artiﬁcial intelligence (AI) and its applications. The work is targeted at new entrants to the artiﬁcial intelligence ﬁeld. It also reminds the experienced researchers about some of the issue they have known.


value:
  There is an endless exciting new research in the field of Artificial Intelligence; this review is far from a global summary of the progress made in the last decade. There also scores of fields within AI. Much of the research covered in this review could be applicable to developing strong AI. Creating a machine capable of understanding the concepts behind the words is important because it allows for more humanlike conversations as well as improved translation. There is also fascinating research into detecting human emotions through audio and video cues. In particular, this paper provides a full review of recent developments within the field of artificial intelligence and its applications. The work is targeted at new aspirants to the artificial intelligence field. It also reminds the researchers about some of the issues they have already known.


value:
  Purpose – The digital paradigm we live in today, which drastically increased the consumption of data, is a threat to people’s privacy. In order to create a high level of privacy protection for its citizens, the European Union proposed the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which introduces obligations for organizations regarding the storing, processing, collecting and disclosing of data. This research aims to identify the critical success factors of GDPR implementation.


value:
  FACTORS DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF GDPR IMPLEMENTATION WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM CZECH REPUBLIC


value:
  In this paper, the key factors that affect the extent of GDPR implementation in enterprises are analysed. Since 2018, all organizations operating in the European Union or processing personal data of EU citizens have had to incorporate a new regulation in their work. After three years of experience, possible key factors that significantly affect the cost of the entire project have been theoretically identified. However, a research gap remains whether the factors thus defined actually have a real impact on the implementation within organizations. Therefore, this study focuses on an empirical investigation of those characteristics using quantitative approach combining Chi-squared tests and the Classification and Regression Tree method. Based on a survey of organizations in the Czech Republic, this paper outlines that the size of the organization, the typology of personal data processed and the way GDPR is implemented determine the scope of the implementation project within organizations. On the other hand, there is no clear evidence that there is significant role in whether it is a public or private organization.


value:
  Privacy regulations have led to many websites showing cookie banners to their users. Usually, cookie banners present the user with the option to “accept” or “reject” cookies. Recently, a new form of paywall-like cookie banner has taken hold on the Web, giving users the option to either accept cookies (and consequently user tracking) or buy a paid subscription for a tracking-free website experience.


value:
  Mobile applications leaking personal information is a well established observation pre and post GDPR. The legal requirements for personal data collection in the context of tracking are specified by GDPR and the common understanding is, that tracking must be based on proper consent. Studies of the consent dialogs on websites revealed severe issues including dark patterns. However, the mobile space is currently underexplored with initial observations pointing towards a similar state of affairs. To address this research gap we analyze a subset of possible consent dialogs, namely privacy consent dialogs, in 3006 Android and 1773 iOS applications. We show that 22.3% of all apps have any form of dialog with only 11.9% giving the user some form of actionable choice, e.g., at least an accept button. However, this choice is limited as a large proportion of all such dialogs employ some form of dark pattern coercing the user to consent.


value:
  Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who’s the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence


value:
  Artiﬁcial intelligence (AI)–—deﬁned as a system’s ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve speciﬁc goals and tasks through ﬂexible adaptation–—is a topic in nearly every boardroom and at many dinner tables. Yet, despite this prominence, AI is still a surprisingly fuzzy concept and a lot of questions surrounding it are still open. In this article, we analyze how AI is different from related concepts, such as the Internet of Things and big data, and suggest that AI is not one monolithic term but instead needs to be seen in a more nuanced way. This can either be achieved by looking at AI through the lens of evolutionary stages (artiﬁcial narrow intelligence, artiﬁcial general intelligence, and artiﬁcial super intelligence) or by focusing on different types of AI systems (analytical AI, human-inspired AI, and humanized AI). Based on this classiﬁcation, we show the potential and risk of AI using a series of case studies regarding universities, corporations, and governments. Finally, we present a framework that helps organizations think about the internal and external implications of AI, which we label the Three C Model of Conﬁdence, Change, and Control.


value:
  Cookie notices (or cookie banners) are a popular mechanism for websites to provide (European) Internet users a tool to choose which cookies the site may set. Banner implementations range from merely providing information that a site uses cookies over offering the choice to accepting or denying all cookies to allowing fine-grained control of cookie usage. Users frequently get annoyed by the banner's pervasiveness as they interrupt ''natural'' browsing on the Web. As a remedy, different browser extensions have been developed to automate the interaction with cookie banners. In this work, we perform a large-scale measurement study comparing the effectiveness of extensions for ''cookie banner interaction.'' We configured the extensions to express different privacy choices (e.g., accepting all cookies, accepting functional cookies, or rejecting all cookies) to understand their capabilities to execute a user's preferences. The results show statistically significant differences in which cookies are set, how many of them are set, and which types are set---even for extensions that aim to implement the same cookie choice. Extensions for ''cookie banner interaction'' can effectively reduce the number of set cookies compared to no interaction with the banners. However, all extensions increase the tracking requests significantly except when rejecting all cookies.


value:
  Do Cookie Banners Respect my Choice? Measuring Legal Compliance of Banners from IAB Europe's Transparency and Consent Framework


value:
  Privacy laws like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) have pushed internet firms processing personal data to obtain user consent. Uncertainty around sanctions for non-compliance led many websites to embed a Consent Management Provider (CMP), which collects users’ consent and shares it with third-party vendors and other websites. Our paper maps the formation of this ecosystem using longitudinal measurements. Primary and secondary data sources are used to measure each actor within the ecosystem. Using 161 million browser crawls, we estimate that CMP adoption doubled from June 2018 to June 2019 and then doubled again until June 2020. Sampling 4.2 million unique domains, we observe that CMP adoption is most prevalent among moderately popular websites (Tranco top 50-10k) but a long tail exists. Using APIs from the adtech industry, we quantify the purposes and lawful bases used to justify processing personal data. A controlled experiment on a public website provides novel insights into how the time-to-complete of two leading CMPs’ consent dialogues varies with the preferences expressed, showing how privacy aware users incur a significant time cost.


value:
  The European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) requires websites to inform users about personal data collection and request consent for cookies. Yet the majority of websites do not give users any choices, and others attempt to deceive them into accepting all cookies. We document the severity of this situation through an analysis of potential GDPR violations in cookie banners in almost 30k websites. We identify six novel violation types, such as incorrect category assignments and misleading expiration times, and we ﬁnd at least one potential violation in a surprising 94.7% of the analyzed websites.


value:
  Web technologies and services widely rely on data collection via tracking users on websites. In the EU, the collection of such data requires user consent thanks to the ePrivacy Directive (ePD), and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). To comply with these regulations and integrate consent collection into their websites, website publishers often rely on third-party contractors, called Consent Management Providers (CMPs), that provide consent pop-ups as a service. Since the GDPR came in force in May 2018, the presence of CMPs continuously increased. In our work, we systematically study the installation and conﬁguration process of consent pop-ups and their potential eﬀects on the decision making of the website publishers. We make an in-depth analysis of the conﬁguration process from ten services provided by ﬁve popular CMP companies and identify common unethical design choices employed. By analysing CMP services on an empty experimental website, we identify manipulation of website publishers towards subscription to the CMPs paid plans and then determine that default consent pop-ups often violate the law. We also show that conﬁguration options may lead to non-compliance, while tracking scanners oﬀered by CMPs manipulate publishers. Our ﬁndings demonstrate the importance of CMPs and design space oﬀered to website publishers, and we raise concerns around the privileged position of CMPs and their strategies inﬂuencing website publishers.


value:
  While the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) has received signiﬁcant attention in the information systems literature, concerns that it would adversely aﬀect websites’ ability to provide quality content to their visitors have not been thoroughly investigated. We construct a longitudinal data-set of news and media websites to study how online content providers adapted their responses to the GDPR over time, and whether restrictions on online tracking enforced by the regulation aﬀected downstream outcomes such as the quantity of content those websites oﬀer to their visitors and visitors’ engagement with such content. We ﬁnd robust evidence of websites’ reactions to the GDPR in both the US and the EU, including an initial reduction in the number of third-party cookies and intensity of visitor tracking. However, reactions diﬀer between US and EU websites, and several months after the enactment of the regulation the initial reduction in tracking is reversed, as tracking among EU websites bounces back. We use diﬀerence-in-diﬀerences, LATE, and look-ahead matching models to assess downstream eﬀects of the regulation, capturing both ecosystem eﬀects and website-level eﬀects. We ﬁnd a small reduction in average page views per visitor on EU websites relative to US websites near the end of the period of observation, but no statistically signiﬁcant impact of the regulation on EU websites’ provision of new content, social media engagement with new content, and ranking in both the short-term and the long-term. We also ﬁnd no evidence of diﬀerences in survival rates across EU and US content providers, and no evidence that monetization strategies change at a higher rate for EU websites relative to US websites. While industry predictions forebode dire consequences arising from the GDPR for content providers, we ﬁnd that websites that responded more strongly to the GDPR were those less likely to be aﬀected by such a response; in contrast, websites that relied in great part on EU visitors found, over time, ways to avoid being negatively aﬀected by the regulation.


value:
  Modern websites rely on personal data to measure and improve their performance and to market to consumers. The European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) limited access to such personal data, with the goal of protecting consumer privacy. We examine the GDPR’s impact on website pageviews and revenue for 1,084 diverse online firms using data from Adobe’s website analytics platform. Among EU users, we find a reduction of approximately 12% in both website pageviews and e-commerce revenue, as recorded by the platform after the GDPR’s enforcement deadline. We find evidence that the GDPR both reduced data recording and harmed real economic outcomes, and we derive bounds for the relative contribution of each explanation.


value:
  https://www.kansascityfed.org/research/research-working-papers/privacy-regulation-quality-investment-2019/


value:
  This paper analyzes how a privacy regulation restricting data disclosure affects quality investment by a monopoly service provider—who derives revenues solely from disclosing user data to third parties—and social welfare. In our model, a user’s gross utility from the service depends on its quality and the amount of information disclosed. We show that in a fully covered market, the regulation reduces quality investment but may still be socially desirable when quality and information are not strong complements from consumers’ perspective. In a partially covered market, the regulation may raise quality and social welfare even when quality and information are highly complementary.


value:
  Exploiting the timing and territorial scope of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), this paper examines how privacy regulation shaped firm performance in a large sample of companies across 61 countries and 34 industries. Controlling for firm and country-industry-year unobserved characteristics, we compare the outcomes of firms at different levels of exposure to EU markets, before and after the enforcement of the GDPR in 2018. We find that enhanced data protection had the unintended consequence of reducing the financial performance of companies targeting European consumers. Across our full sample, firms exposed to the regulation experienced a 8% decline in profits, and a 2% reduction in sales. An exception is large technology companies, which were relatively unaffected by the regulation on both performance measures. Meanwhile, we find the negative impact on profits among small technology companies to be almost double the average effect across our full sample. Following several robustness tests and placebo regressions, we conclude that the GDPR has had significant negative impacts on firm performance in general, and on small companies in particular.


value:
  This paper reviews the economic literature on the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). I highlight key challenges for studying the regulation including the diﬃculty of ﬁnding a suitable control group, variable ﬁrm compliance and regulatory enforcement, as well as the regulation’s impact on data observability. The economic literature on the GDPR to date has largely—though not universally—documented harms to ﬁrms. These include harms to ﬁrm performance, competition, innovation, the web, and marketing. On the elusive consumer welfare side, the literature documents some objective privacy improvements as well as helpful survey evidence. The literature shows how the GDPR works in practice and illuminates the consequences of its design decisions. Finally, I suggest opportunities for future research on the GDPR as well as privacy regulation and privacy-related innovation more broadly.


value:
  The European Union is likely to introduce among the first, and most comprehensive AI regulatory regimes of the world’s major jurisdictions. We ask whether the EU’s upcoming regulation for AI will diffuse globally, producing a so-called “Brussels Effect”. Extending Anu Bradford’s work, we outline the mechanisms by which such regulatory diffusion may occur. We consider both the possibility that the EU’s AI regulation will incentivise changes in products offered in non-EU countries (a de facto Brussels Effect) and the possibility it will influence regulation adopted by other jurisdictions (a de jure Brussels Effect). Focusing on the proposed EU AI Act, we tentatively conclude that both de facto and de jure Brussels effects are likely. A de facto effect is particularly likely to arise in large US tech companies with “high-risk” AI systems. The upcoming regulation might be important in offering the first operationalisation of developing and deploying trustworthy AI.


value:
  La protection des données: un pilier de l’autonomisation des citoyens et de l’approche de l’Union à l’égard de la transition numérique - deux années d’application du règlement général sur la protection des données


value:
  The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) was enacted in the European Union in April 2016 and went into eﬀect in May 2018. We study its impact on investment in new and emerging technology ﬁrms. Our ﬁndings indicate negative post-GDPR eﬀects after its 2018 rollout on European ventures, relative to their counterparts in the US and the rest of the world, and considerably lesser eﬀects after its 2016 enactment and before implementation. The negative eﬀects manifest in the number of and amounts raised in ﬁnancing deals, and are particularly pronounced for newer, data-related, and business-to-consumer ventures.


value:
  The European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) demands significant data protection safeguards and poses both new challenges and potential opportunities to organizations around the world. Most organizations are not yet adequately prepared for compliance with the GDPR. To minimize liability under the GDPR, organizations around the world need to make changes to be in compliance with the GDPR. This editorial preface discusses GDPR’s impact on global technology development including both challenges and opportunities. Furthermore, we discuss how China and the U.S., the two leading global economic power, can better respond to the challenges and opportunities brought up by GDPR.


value:
  The EU data regulation will affect computer, Internet, and technology usage within and outside the EU; how it will play out remains to be seen.


value:
  . Ad-blocking applications have become increasingly popular among Internet users. Ad-blockers offer various privacy- and security-enhancing features: they can reduce personal data collection and exposure to malicious advertising, help safeguard users' decision-making autonomy, reduce users' costs (by increasing the speed of page loading), and improve the browsing experience (by reducing visual clutter). On the other hand, the online advertising industry has claimed that ads increase consumers' economic welfare by helping them find better, cheaper deals faster. If so, using ad-blockers would deprive consumers of these benefits. However, little is known about the actual economic impact of ad-blockers. We designed a lab experiment (N=212) with real economic incentives to understand the impact of ad-blockers on consumers' product searching and purchasing behavior, and the resulting consumer outcomes. We focus on the effects of blocking contextual ads (ads targeted to individual, potentially sensitive, contexts, such as search queries in a search engine or the content of web pages) on how participants searched for and purchased various products online, and the resulting consumer welfare. We find that blocking contextual ads did not have a statistically significant effect on the prices of products participants chose to purchase, the time they spent searching for them, or how satisfied they were with the chosen products, prices, and perceived quality. Hence we do not reject the null hypothesis that consumer behavior and outcomes stay constant when such ads are blocked or shown. We conclude that the use of ad-blockers does not seem to compromise consumer economic welfare (along the metrics captured in the experiment) in exchange for privacy and security benefits. We discuss the implications of this work in terms of end-users' privacy, the study's limitations, and future work to extend these results.<br>Presented at the 29th USENIX Security Symposium, August 12-14, 2020


value:
  https://kilthub.cmu.edu/articles/conference_contribution/The_impact_of_ad-blockers_on_product_search_and_purchase_behavior_A_lab_experiment/13653134


value:
  We use traffic data from around 5, 000 web domains in Europe and United States to investigate the effect of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) on website visits and user behaviour. We document an overall traffic reduction of approximately 15% in the long-run and find a measurable reduction of engagement with websites. Traffic from direct visits, organic search, email marketing, social media links, display ads, and referrals dropped significantly, but paid search traffic – mainly Google search ads – was barely affected. We observe an inverted U-shaped relationship between website size and change in visits due to privacy regulation: the smallest and largest websites lost visitors, while medium ones were less affected. Our results are consistent with the view that users care about privacy and may defer visits in response to website data handling policies. Privacy regulation can impact market structure and may increase dependence on large advertising service providers. Enforcement matters as well: The effects were amplified considerably in the long-run, following the first significant fine issued eight months after the entry into force of the GDPR.


value:
  How do privacy regulations in the market impact online search for products and information? This paper investigates the impact of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR for short) on consumers’ online browsing and search behavior using consumer panels from four countries, United Kingdom, Spain, United States, and Brazil. We utilize recent advances in the synthetic control literature and apply the generalized synthetic control and matrix completion methods for causal inference. We document and increase in the search effort of consumers. We document decline in domain traffic through emails, and explore changes in online traffic through different marketing channels. Overall, the post-GDPR online environment may be more difficult for EU consumers to navigate through.


value:
  Arrêt de la Cour dans l’affaire C-470/21 | La Quadrature du Net e.a. (Données personnelles et lutte contre la contrefaçon)


value:
  Privacy regulation by the European Union has had effects for websites beyond the European Union and lead to an increase in market concentration of web technology vendors
            , 
              We document short-run changes in websites and the web technology industry with the introduction of the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). We follow more than 110,000 websites and their third-party HTTP requests for 12 months before and 6 months after the GDPR became effective and show that websites substantially reduced their interactions with web technology providers. Importantly, this also holds for websites not legally bound by the GDPR. These changes are especially pronounced among less popular websites and regarding the collection of personal data. We document an increase in market concentration in web technology services after the introduction of the GDPR: Although all firms suffer losses, the largest vendor—Google—loses relatively less and significantly increases market share in important markets such as advertising and analytics. Our findings contribute to the discussion on how regulating privacy, artificial intelligence and other areas of data governance relate to data minimization, regulatory competition, and market structure.


value:
  This study examines the impact of regulation as an antecedent of online privacy concern. Previous research found that perceived effectiveness and enforcement of regulatory policies reduce online privacy concern; however, it does not explain what factors influence this relationship. Based on the survey data, the empirical analysis is conducted on a large sample of internet users in Croatia. Our methodology consists of two parts: first, we use confirmatory factor analysis to validate the latent constructs used in the main model; and then we proceed with model estimation using OLS and ordered probit techniques. This study fills the gap in the existing body of knowledge by analysing different perceptions of the existing legislation and government effort to protect online privacy in the context of sociodemographic characteristics of respondents, computer anxiety, individual desire to maintain control of personal information online, as well as intensity and diversity of online activities. Our results indicate that perceived effectiveness of government regulation reduces online privacy concern whereas computer anxiety has a major positive impact on online privacy concern. These findings might be useful for national policy-makers and for business strategies, especially in the context of the GDPR regulation introduced in 2018.


value:
  We document short-run changes in websites and the web technology industry with the introduction of the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). We follow more than 110,000 websites and their third-party HTTP requests for 12 months before and 6 months after the GDPR became effective and show that websites substantially reduced their interactions with web technology providers. Importantly, this also holds for websites not legally bound by the GDPR. These changes are especially pronounced among less popular websites and regarding the collection of personal data. We document an increase in market concentration in web technology services after the introduction of the GDPR: Although all ﬁrms suffer losses, the largest vendor—Google—loses relatively less and signiﬁcantly increases market share in important markets such as advertising and analytics. Our ﬁndings contribute to the discussion on how regulating privacy, artiﬁcial intelligence and other areas of data governance relate to data minimization, regulatory competition, and market structure.


value:
  Artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology has achieved many great things, such as facial recognition, medical diagnosis, and self-driving cars. AI promises enormous benefits for economic growth, social development, as well as human well-being and safety improvement. However, the low-level of explainability, data biases, data security, data privacy, and ethical problems of AI-based technology pose significant risks for users, developers, humanity, and societies. As AI advances, one critical issue is how to address the ethical and moral challenges associated with AI. Even though the concept of “machine ethics” was proposed around 2006, AI ethics is still in the infancy stage. AI ethics is the field related to the study of ethical issues in AI. To address AI ethics, one needs to consider the ethics of AI and how to build ethical AI. Ethics of AI studies the ethical principles, rules, guidelines, policies, and regulations that are related to AI. Ethical AI is an AI that performs and behaves ethically. One must recognize and understand the potential ethical and moral issues that may be caused by AI to formulate the necessary ethical principles, rules, guidelines, policies, and regulations for AI (i.e., Ethics of AI). With the appropriate ethics of AI, one can then build AI that exhibits ethical behavior (i.e., Ethical AI). This paper will discuss AI ethics by looking at the ethics of AI and ethical AI. What are the perceived ethical and moral issues with AI? What are the general and common ethical principles, rules, guidelines, policies, and regulations that can resolve or at least attenuate these ethical and moral issues with AI? What are some of the necessary features and characteristics of an ethical AI? How to adhere to the ethics of AI to build ethical AI?


value:
  RÈGLEMENT DU PARLEMENT EUROPÉEN ET DU CONSEIL ÉTABLISSANT DES RÈGLES HARMONISÉES CONCERNANT L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE  (LÉGISLATION SUR L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE) ET MODIFIANT CERTAINS ACTES LÉGISLATIFS DE L’UNION


value:
  https://www.cnil.fr/fr/ia-la-cnil-publie-ses-premieres-recommandations-sur-le-developpement-des-systemes-dintelligence


value:
  Surveillance advertising is one of the central business models in the digital markets, responsible for the emergence of digital platform providers, such as Alphabet and Meta, into technology giants. As it involves processing large amounts of personal data, it comes in direct tension with the right to personal data protection in the European Union. The surveillance advertising business model was one of the challenges that triggered data protection reform, resulting in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Within the first five years of the GDPR, a large part of the surveillance advertising industry proved illegitimate. For example, litigation of Meta’s surveillance advertising has found that in 2018-2023, the company engaged in surveillance advertising without appropriate legal basis under the GDPR. The same goes for surveillance advertising conducted in the open market, often called AdTech. In order to respond to the developing case law of the GDPR, the industry has now moved to a ‘Surveillance-or-Pay’ business model. This chapter finds such a model illegitimate in many cases, particularly for gatekeepers such as Meta. This conclusion also calls for urgent enforcement from the national data protection authorities and the European Data Protection Board to ensure the surveillance advertising industry does not continue illegitimately over the next five years of the GDPR.


value:
  Chronicling GDPR Transparency Rights in Practice the good the bad and the challenges ahead dewitte ausloos 2024.pdf


value:
  Opinion 08/2024 on Valid Consent in the Context of Consent or Pay Models Implemented by Large Online Platforms


value:
  Are new technologies driving us towards dystopia or utopia – or something in between? Marketers not only have a stake in finding out the answer to this question but also a direct (and indirect) influence on determining the answer. This commentary discusses recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics, and how these are influencing marketers, consumers and society by either leading to a dystopian (black magic), utopian (white magic) or ‘dualopian’ future (grey magic). We argue that the net effect is squarely in the grey and that marketers have a unique power to leverage AI and robotics developments for good. The commentary concludes with 24 research questions forming an agenda for future research under three streams: marketing power, understanding the bias and ethics revisited.


value:
  https://www.edpb.europa.eu/news/news/2023/12-billion-euro-fine-facebook-result-edpb-binding-decision_en


